title: The modulator is a constitutive enhancer of a developmentally regulated sea urchin histone H2A gene.
abstract: Going back to the late 1970s and early 1980s, we trace the Xenopus oocyte microinjection experiments that led to the emergence of the concept of "modulator". The finding that the modulator could transactivate transcription from far upstream and in either orientation suggested that a new genetic element, different from the classical prokaryotic promoter sequences, had been discovered. This particular enhancer transactivates transcription of the sea urchin early (alpha) histone H2A gene which is regulated in early sea urchin development. We summarise the data from sea urchin microinjection experiments that confirm and extend the results obtained with Xenopus oocytes. We conclude that the H2A enhancer is bipartite, is located approx. 100 bp upstream of the TATAAATA box in the H2A gene of two sea urchin species and enhances transcription when placed at a position far upstream or far downstream of the gene unless an insulator intervenes between enhancer and promoter. Evidence from microinjection experiments with sea urchin embryos suggests that the developmental control of H2A expression resides not with the enhancer, which is constitutively active, but with a striking chromatin structure with two positioned nucleosomes near the 3' end of the gene. Within this structure, there is an insulator element.
authors.affiliation: Dipartimento die Biologia Cellulare e dello Sviluppo, Viale delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italia. spinelli@unipa.it
authors.forename: Giovanni
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Spinelli
authors.forename: Max L
authors.initials: ML
authors.lastname: Birnstiel
mesh_terms: D020413:3' Untranslated Regions; D020121:5' Untranslated Regions; D000818:Animals; D001483:Base Sequence; D018076:DNA, Complementary / Q000378:metabolism; D015536:Down-Regulation; D018507:Gene Expression Regulation, Developmental; D006657:Histones / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000235:genetics*; D006801:Humans; D008957:Models, Genetic; D008969:Molecular Sequence Data; D012617:Sea Urchins; D014158:Transcription, Genetic; D015533:Transcriptional Activation; D014981:Xenopus
chemical_list: D020413:3' Untranslated Regions; D020121:5' Untranslated Regions; D018076:DNA, Complementary; D006657:Histones