Serum carotenoid concentrations in US children and adolescents.
BACKGROUND
Carotenoids, a class of phytochemicals, may affect the risk of several chronic conditions.


OBJECTIVE
Our objective was to describe the distributions and correlates of serum carotenoid concentrations in US children and adolescents.


METHODS
Using data from the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (1988-1994), a cross-sectional study, we examined the distributions of serum concentrations of alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, beta-cryptoxanthin, lutein and zeaxanthin, and lycopene among 4231 persons aged 6-16 y.


RESULTS
After adjustment for age, sex, race or ethnicity, poverty-income ratio, body mass index status, HDL- and non-HDL-cholesterol concentrations, C-reactive protein concentration, and cotinine concentration, only HDL-cholesterol (P < 0.001) and non-HDL-cholesterol (P < 0.001) concentrations were directly related to all carotenoid concentrations. Age (P < 0.001) and body mass index status (P < 0.001) were inversely related to all carotenoid concentrations except those of lycopene. Young males had slightly higher carotenoid concentrations than did young females, but the differences were significant only for lycopene concentrations (P = 0.029). African American children and adolescents had significantly higher beta-cryptoxanthin (P < 0.001), lutein and zeaxanthin (P < 0.001), and lycopene (P = 0.006) concentrations but lower alpha-carotene (P < 0.001) concentrations than did white children and adolescents. Mexican American children and adolescents had higher alpha-carotene (P < 0.001), beta-cryptoxanthin (P < 0.001), and lutein and zeaxanthin (P < 0.001) concentrations but lower lycopene (P = 0.001) concentrations than did white children and adolescents. C-reactive protein concentrations were inversely related to beta-carotene (P < 0.001), lutein and zeaxanthin (P < 0.001), and lycopene (P = 0.023) concentrations. Cotinine concentrations were inversely related to alpha-carotene (P = 0.002), beta-carotene (P < 0.001), and beta-cryptoxanthin (P < 0.001) concentrations.


CONCLUSIONS
These data show significant variations in serum carotenoid concentrations among US children and adolescents and may be valuable as reference ranges for this population.
D000293:Adolescent; D015992:Body Mass Index; D002338:Carotenoids / Q000097:blood*; D002648:Child; D002784:Cholesterol / Q000097:blood; D008076:Cholesterol, HDL / Q000097:blood; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D065366:Cryptoxanthins; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D014975:Lutein / Q000097:blood; D000077276:Lycopene; D008297:Male; D012016:Reference Values; D012727:Sex Characteristics; D014481:United States; D024341:Xanthophylls; D065146:Zeaxanthins; D019207:beta Carotene / Q000031:analogs & derivatives* / Q000097:blood
D008076:Cholesterol, HDL; D065366:Cryptoxanthins; D024341:Xanthophylls; D065146:Zeaxanthins; D019207:beta Carotene; D002338:Carotenoids; C041635:alpha-carotene; D002784:Cholesterol; D000077276:Lycopene; D014975:Lutein