title: Pediatric urolithiasis: developing nation perspectives.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  We evaluated epidemiology, etiology, dietary and urinary risk factors, and the composition of calculi in pediatric stone formers in Pakistan.
  
  
  METHODS
  This retrospective study includes 1,440 children treated between 1987 and 2000. Case records were reviewed for demographics, etiology and clinical symptoms. Dietary and urinary risk factors were analyzed prospectively in idiopathic stone formers. Stone composition was analyzed by infrared spectroscopy.
  
  
  RESULTS
  There were 1,075 males and 365 females for a male-to-female ratio of 3:1. The peak age for renal and bladder stones was 6 to 10 and 1 to 5 years, respectively. Overall 795 stones (55%) were renal, 198 (14%) were ureteral and 447 (31%) were vesical. Bladder stones were present in 60% of cases in the mid 1980s but decreased to 15% in the mid 1990s. The clinical symptoms were abdominal pain in 511 patients (51%) and fever in 193 (19.5%). There were anatomical abnormalities in 96 patients (12%), metabolic abnormalities in 206 (25%), infection stones in 60 (7%) and idiopathic stones in 444 (55%). Urinary analysis in idiopathic stone formers revealed hypercalciuria in 17 (11%), hyperoxaluria in 62 (40%), hyperuricosuria in 41 (27%) and hypocitruria in 97 (63%). Diet involved a low intake of protein in 60 cases (44%), calcium in 45 (33%), potassium in 105 (77%) and high oxalate in 75 (55%). The composition was calcium oxalate in 362 stones (47%), ammonium hydrogen urate in 210 (27%) and struvite in 49 (6.4%). Stones recurred in 30 patients (2%).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The pattern of calculous disease changed from a predominantly lower tract site in the mid 1980s to the upper tract in the mid 1990s. Stone composition, urinary risk factors and dietary analysis suggest that diet, dehydration and poor nutrition are the main causative factors of stone disease.
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D003681:Dehydration / Q000150:complications; D003906:Developing Countries; D005247:Feeding Behavior; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D015994:Incidence; D007223:Infant; D008297:Male; D010154:Pakistan / Q000453:epidemiology; D011502:Protein-Energy Malnutrition / Q000150:complications; D012307:Risk Factors; D014545:Urinary Calculi / Q000737:chemistry / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology*; D014556:Urine / Q000737:chemistry