title: Carbohydrate oxidation disorders of skeletal muscle.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The major energy sources for muscle contraction are glycogen, glucose and fatty acids, and defects in their oxidative pathways cause metabolic myopathies. Eleven specific enzyme deficiencies of carbohydrate oxidation affect skeletal muscle alone or in combination with other tissues, such as liver, heart or red blood cells. These hereditary glycogen storage diseases cause two major clinical presentations: one characterized by fixed, often progressive muscle weakness, and the other by acute, intermittent, and reversible muscle dysfunction manifesting as exercise intolerance (myalgia on exertion, muscle contractures, myoglobinuria).
  
  
  RESULTS
  The focus of this review is on recent developments in: clinical features, including a brief description of the newest identified glycogen storage disease type XIII; molecular genetic studies discussing genotype-phenotype correlations in some carbohydrate oxidation disorders; pathophysiological mechanisms, especially those assessed by non-invasive P magnetic resonance spectroscopy; and therapeutic approaches such as nutritional supplementation and gene therapy, including recombinant enzyme replacement.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Although major progress has been made in an understanding of the molecular genetic bases of carbohydrate oxidation defects, the pathophysiology of exercise intolerance and muscle weakness remains to be further clarified. Gene therapy and dietary therapeutic regimes appear promising, but need to be actively investigated in the future.
authors.affiliation: Kliniken Bergmannsheil, Department of Neurology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany. matthias.vorgerd@ruhr-uni-bochum.de
authors.forename: Matthias
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Vorgerd
authors.forename: Jochen
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Zange
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D004195:Disease Models, Animal; D015316:Genetic Therapy; D005838:Genotype; D006008:Glycogen Storage Disease / Q000201:enzymology / Q000235:genetics* / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000628:therapy; D006801:Humans; D009682:Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy; D018482:Muscle, Skeletal / Q000201:enzymology* / Q000473:pathology; D010084:Oxidation-Reduction; D010641:Phenotype; D010759:Phosphorus Isotopes
chemical_list: D010759:Phosphorus Isotopes