title: Personal understanding and target understanding: mapping influences on the outcomes of learning.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Among the many theories of learning, few have been developed specifically for education. Most have explained learning in terms of either the individual activities of the learner or the design of the learning context; yet both are important in education. Each theory applies strictly only to the context for which it was developed, and yet quite general implications for education are often suggested.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  1. To review qualitative research on learning carried out within the classroom and to identify some of the major influences on the quality of learning outcomes. 2. To develop a conceptual framework based on this research which seeks to explain differences in levels and forms of understanding.
  
  
  METHODS
  Model building based on reviews of research on learning in schools and universities.
  
  
  METHODS
  A conceptual framework was developed from the review of the literature which emphasises the activities of both teachers and students and the influences on learning outcomes of both the individual and the social context. The framework introduces a distinction between 'target' and 'personal' understanding to draw attention to the differing ways in which curriculum designers, teachers and students define knowledge and conceptualise the teaching-learning process. It also suggests how these conceptualisations influence the level of understanding reached by students. The framework is intended to encourage teachers and curriculum designers to think about the likely effects of the tasks and conditions they are providing for students, and to consider ways of strengthening the emphasis on conceptual understanding. By drawing on research findings from both schools and universities, a way of thinking about teaching and learning is indicated which can, to some extent, be generalised across educational contexts.
authors.affiliation: Department of Higher and Community Education, University of Edinburgh, UK. Noel.Entwistle@ed.ac.uk
authors.forename: Noel
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Entwistle
authors.forename: Colin
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Smith
mesh_terms: D003071:Cognition; D006801:Humans; D007858:Learning; D011582:Psychological Theory