title: Oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder: a review of the past 10 years, part II.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To review empirical findings on oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and conduct disorder (CD).
  
  
  METHODS
  Selected summaries of the literature over the past decade are presented.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Research on ODD and CD during the past decade has addressed the complexity involved in identifying the primary risk factors and developmental pathways to disruptive behavior disorders (DBD). In some domains, research is entering an entirely new phase because of the availability of new technologies. In others, larger data sets and more complicated methodological and statistical techniques are testing increasingly complex models. Yet questions remain regarding the most useful subtyping systems, the identification of the most significant risk factors, and the relationships between risk factors from multiple domains.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Convincing evidence of causal linkages remains elusive. Research has questioned the notion that CD is intractable, especially when multiple domains of risk and impairment are the targets of intervention. It is apparent that there is not one single causative factor; thus it is not likely that one single modality will suffice to treat CD. Future steps will involve the restructuring of diagnostic criteria to capture adequate subtypes and indicators, clarification of the neurological underpinnings of the disorder, and refinement in the models available to explain the varied pathways to DBD.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry, Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA. burkejd@msx.upmc.edu
authors.forename: Jeffrey D
authors.initials: JD
authors.lastname: Burke
authors.forename: Rolf
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Loeber
authors.forename: Boris
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Birmaher
mesh_terms: D000124:Achievement; D000223:Adaptation, Psychological; D000293:Adolescent; D019958:Attention Deficit and Disruptive Behavior Disorders / Q000209:etiology* / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000628:therapy; D001921:Brain / Q000378:metabolism / Q000503:physiopathology; D002648:Child; D002649:Child Abuse / Q000523:psychology; D003072:Cognition Disorders; D019955:Conduct Disorder / Q000209:etiology / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000628:therapy; D004410:Dyslexia; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D006854:Hydrocortisone / Q000378:metabolism; D008016:Life Change Events; D008297:Male; D010287:Parent-Child Relations; D010379:Peer Group; D002666:Psychology, Child; D012701:Serotonin / Q000378:metabolism; D013694:Temperament
chemical_list: D012701:Serotonin; D006854:Hydrocortisone