title: Women in medicine: a four-nation comparison.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  to determine the impact of increasing numbers of women in medicine on the physician work force in Australia, Canada, England, and the United States.
  
  
  METHODS
  We collected data on physician work force issues from professional organizations and government agencies in each of the 4 nations.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Women now make up nearly half of all medical students in all 4 countries and 20% to 30% of all practicing physicians. Most are concentrated in primary care specialties and obstetrics/gynecology and are underrepresented in surgical training programs. Women physicians practice largely in urban settings and work 7 to 11 fewer hours per week than men do, for lower pay. Twenty percent to 50% of women primary care physicians are in part-time practice.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Work force planners should anticipate larger decreases in physician full-time equivalencies than previously expected because of the increased number of women in practice and their tendency to work fewer hours and to be in part-time practice, especially in primary care. Responses to these changes vary among the 4 countries. Canada has developed a detailed database of work/family issues; England has pioneered flexible training schemes and reentry training programs; and Australia has joined consumers, physicians, and educators in improving training opportunities and the work climate for women. Improved access to surgical and subspecialty fields, training and practice settings that provide balance for work/family issues, and improved recruitment and retention of women physicians in rural areas will increase the contributions of women physicians.
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Psychology, University of Amsterdam.
authors.forename: Julia E
authors.initials: JE
authors.lastname: McMurray
authors.forename: May
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Cohen
authors.forename: Graham
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Angus
authors.forename: John
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Harding
authors.forename: Paul
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Gavel
authors.forename: John
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Horvath
authors.forename: Elisabeth
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Paice
authors.forename: Julie
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Schmittdiel
authors.forename: Kevin
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Grumbach
mesh_terms: D001315:Australia; D002170:Canada; D003625:Data Collection; D004526:Efficiency; D004739:England; D005194:Family Practice; D005260:Female; D006176:Gynecology; D006801:Humans; D007396:Internship and Residency / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D008297:Male; D009774:Obstetrics; D010822:Physicians, Women / Q000600:supply & distribution* / Q000639:trends; D014481:United States; D014931:Women, Working / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D000078329:Workforce; D016526:Workload / Q000706:statistics & numerical data