title: Refractory epilepsy: diagnosis and management.
abstract: Persistence of seizures despite appropriate medical treatment is called refractory epilepsy. Persistent seizures have enormous psychosocial, behavioural and cognitive effects in addition to effects on mortality. Almost 2,40,000 to 3,20,000 patients of refractory epilepsy in India are potential candidates for epilepsy surgery. Causes of refractory or intractable epilepsy are inadequate anti-epileptic treatment, difficulty in treating some epileptic syndromes and difficulty in controlling seizures due to structural brain diseases. Careful evaluation of historical details, especially based on an eyewitness account is the most important aspect in establishing the diagnosis of epilepsy. Raised serum prolactin level helps in differentiating convulsive seizures from non-epileptic convulsions. Video electroencephalographic monitoring is proved effective and efficient mean to establish the rightful diagnosis. Recent developments in neuro-imaging have revolutionised the diagnosis of underlying pathology in patients with refractory epilepsies. Patients with refractory epilepsy should be referred to a specialised epilepsy centre where facilities for epilepsy surgery are available. When medical therapy fails, other options are helpful like use of newer anti-epileptic drugs, vagus nerve stimulation or consideration of epilepsy surgery.
authors.affiliation: Department of Neurology, King George's Medical College, Lucknow.
authors.forename: Alok Mohan
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Kar
authors.forename: Ravindra Kumar
authors.initials: RK
authors.lastname: Garg
authors.forename: Rajesh
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Verma
mesh_terms: D000927:Anticonvulsants / Q000627:therapeutic use; D001921:Brain / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000473:pathology / Q000601:surgery; D003937:Diagnosis, Differential; D004032:Diet; D004599:Electric Stimulation Therapy; D004827:Epilepsy / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000628:therapy*; D006801:Humans; D010349:Patient Compliance; D011859:Radiography; D012640:Seizures / Q000150:complications; D014630:Vagus Nerve / Q000502:physiology
chemical_list: D000927:Anticonvulsants