title: Cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption in relation to cognitive performance in middle age.
abstract: In the elderly, cigarette smoking has been related to reduced cognitive performance and moderate alcohol consumption to increased cognitive performance. It is not clear whether these associations also exist in middle age. The authors examined these relations in a population-based cohort study of 1,927 randomly selected, predominantly middle-aged subjects aged 45-70 years at the time of cognitive testing and living in the Netherlands. From 1995 until 2000, an extensive cognitive battery was administered, and compound scores were calculated. Risk factors had been assessed approximately 5 years previously. Multiple linear regression analyses (in which one unit of the cognitive score = one standard deviation) showed that, after the authors adjusted for age, sex, education, alcohol consumption, and cardiovascular risk factors, current smokers had reduced psychomotor speed (beta = -0.159, 95% confidence interval: -0.071, -0.244; p = 0.0003) and reduced cognitive flexibility (beta = -0.133, 95% confidence interval: -0.035, -0.230; p = 0.008) compared with never smokers. This effect was similar to that of being approximately 4 years older. Alcohol consumption was related to increased speed and better flexibility, especially among women who drank 1-4 alcoholic beverages a day. In conclusion, among middle-aged subjects, current smoking was inversely and alcohol consumption positively related to psychomotor speed and cognitive flexibility. This finding suggests that actions to prevent cognitive decline can be taken in middle age.
authors.affiliation: Julius Centre for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands. s.kalmijn@jc.azu.nl
authors.forename: Sandra
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Kalmijn
authors.forename: Martin P J
authors.initials: MP
authors.lastname: van Boxtel
authors.forename: Monique W M
authors.initials: MW
authors.lastname: Verschuren
authors.forename: Jelle
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Jolles
authors.forename: Lenore J
authors.initials: LJ
authors.lastname: Launer
mesh_terms: D017677:Age Distribution; D000368:Aged; D000428:Alcohol Drinking / Q000453:epidemiology*; D003072:Cognition Disorders / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology* / Q000517:prevention & control*; D015986:Confounding Factors, Epidemiologic; D004522:Educational Status; D005260:Female; D005500:Follow-Up Studies; D006801:Humans; D008019:Life Style; D016014:Linear Models; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009426:Netherlands; D009483:Neuropsychological Tests; D011159:Population Surveillance; D011597:Psychomotor Performance; D012307:Risk Factors; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000453:epidemiology