title: Blurring artifacts in megavoltage radiography with a flat-panel imaging system: comparison of Monte Carlo simulations with measurements.
abstract: Originally designed for use at medical-imaging x-ray energies, imaging systems comprising scintillating screens and amorphous Si detectors are also used at the megavoltage photon energies typical of portal imaging and industrial radiography. While image blur at medical-imaging x-ray energies is strongly influenced both by K-shell fluorescence and by the transport of optical photons within the scintillator layer, at higher photon energies the image blur is dominated by radiation scattered from the detector housing and internal support structures. We use Monte Carlo methods to study the blurring in a notional detector: a series of semi-infinite layers with material compositions, thicknesses, and densities similar to those of a commercially available flat-panel amorphous Si detector system comprising a protective housing, a gadolinium oxysulfide scintillator screen, and associated electronics. We find that the image blurring, as described by a point-spread function (PSF), has three length scales. The first component, with a submillimeter length scale, arises from electron scatter within the scintillator and detection electronics. The second component, with a millimeter-to-centimeter length scale, arises from electrons produced in the front cover of the detector. The third component, with a length scale of tens of centimeters, arises from photon scatter by the back cover of the detector. The relative contributions of each of these components to the overall PSF vary with incident photon energy. We present an algorithm that includes the energy-dependent sensitivity and energy-dependent PSF within a ray-tracing formalism. We find quantitative agreement (approximately 2%) between predicted radiographs with radiographs of copper step wedges, taken with a 9 MV bremsstrahlung source and a commercially available flat-panel system. The measured radiographs show the blurring artifacts expected from both the millimeter-scale electron transport and from the tens-of-centimeters length scale arising from the scattered photon transport. Calculations indicate that neglect of the energy-dependent blurring would lead to discrepancies in the apparent transmission of these wedges of the order of 9%.
authors.affiliation: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94550, USA. schachvonwittenau1@llnl.gov
authors.forename: A E
authors.initials: AE
authors.lastname: Schach von Wittenau
authors.forename: C M
authors.initials: CM
authors.lastname: Logan
authors.forename: M B
authors.initials: MB
authors.lastname: Aufderheide
authors.forename: D M
authors.initials: DM
authors.lastname: Slone
mesh_terms: D016477:Artifacts; D003198:Computer Simulation; D003626:Data Display; D019544:Equipment Failure Analysis; D008962:Models, Theoretical; D009010:Monte Carlo Method; D010315:Particle Accelerators / Q000295:instrumentation; D017785:Photons; D011786:Quality Control; D011856:Radiographic Image Enhancement / Q000295:instrumentation*; D011859:Radiography / Q000295:instrumentation*; D011874:Radiometry / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods; D011878:Radiotherapy / Q000295:instrumentation; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D012542:Scattering, Radiation; D012680:Sensitivity and Specificity; D014963:X-Ray Intensifying Screens