title: Phobias and preparedness: the selective, automatic, and encapsulated nature of fear.
abstract: We describe evidence for an evolved module for fear elicitation and fear learning with four primary characteristics. First, it is preferentially activated by stimuli related to survival threats in evolutionary history. Thus, fear-relevant stimuli lead to superior conditioning of aversive associations compared with fear-irrelevant stimuli. Second, the module is automatically activated by fear-relevant stimuli, meaning that fear activation occurs before conscious cognitive analysis of the stimulus can occur. Third, the fear module is relatively impenetrable to conscious cognitive control, and fear conditioning with fear-relevant stimuli can occur even with subliminal conditioned stimuli. Fourth, the amygdala seems to be the central brain area dedicated to the fear module. Finally, we propose that there are two levels of fear conditioning, with an emotional level that is relatively independent of the cognitive contingency level, each mediated by different brain areas.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208-2710, USA.
authors.forename: Susan
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Mineka
authors.forename: Arne
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Ohman
mesh_terms: D000679:Amygdala / Q000502:physiology; D000818:Animals; D003071:Cognition; D003213:Conditioning, Psychological / Q000502:physiology*; D004644:Emotions; D005239:Fear / Q000502:physiology* / Q000528:radiation effects; D006801:Humans; D007858:Learning / Q000502:physiology; D008960:Models, Psychological; D010698:Phobic Disorders / Q000503:physiopathology* / Q000523:psychology