title: Bone lead levels in adjudicated delinquents. A case control study.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Lead exposure shares many risk factors with delinquent behavior, and bone lead levels are related to self-reports of delinquent acts. No data exist as to whether lead exposure is higher in arrested delinquents. The goal of this study is to evaluate the association between lead exposure, as reflected in bone lead levels, and adjudicated delinquency.
  
  
  METHODS
  This is a case-control study of 194 youths aged 12-18, arrested and adjudicated as delinquent by the Juvenile Court of Allegheny County, PA and 146 nondelinquent controls from high schools in the city of Pittsburgh. Bone lead was measured by K-line X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy of tibia. Logistic regression was used to model the association between delinquent status and bone lead concentration. Covariates entered into the model were race, parent education and occupation, presence of two parental figures in the home, number of children in the home and neighborhood crime rate. Separate regression analyses were also conducted after stratification on race.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Cases had significantly higher mean concentrations of lead in their bones than controls (11.0+/-32.7 vs. 1.5+/-32.1 ppm). This was true for both Whites and African Americans. The unadjusted odds ratio for a lead level > or =25 vs. <25 ppm was 1.9 (95% CL: 1.1-3.2). After adjustment for covariates and interactions and removal of noninfluential covariates, adjudicated delinquents were four times more likely to have bone lead concentrations >25 ppm than controls (OR=4.0, 95% CL: 1.4-11.1).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Elevated body lead burdens, measured by bone lead concentrations, are associated with elevated risk for adjudicated delinquency.
authors.affiliation: Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Keystone Building, Suite 310, 3520 Fifth Avenue, PA 15213, USA. hlnlead@pitt.edu
authors.forename: Herbert L
authors.initials: HL
authors.lastname: Needleman
authors.forename: Christine
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: McFarland
authors.forename: Roberta B
authors.initials: RB
authors.lastname: Ness
authors.forename: Stephen E
authors.initials: SE
authors.lastname: Fienberg
authors.forename: Michael J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Tobin
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D044383:Black People; D001842:Bone and Bones / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism*; D001921:Brain / Q000187:drug effects / Q000503:physiopathology; D016022:Case-Control Studies; D003415:Crime / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D004522:Educational Status; D004777:Environment; D006801:Humans; D007175:Impulsive Behavior / Q000139:chemically induced / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000503:physiopathology; D007604:Juvenile Delinquency / Q000208:ethnology / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D007854:Lead / Q000633:toxicity*; D020264:Lead Poisoning, Nervous System, Childhood / Q000150:complications* / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000503:physiopathology; D016015:Logistic Models; D008297:Male; D010290:Parents; D011237:Predictive Value of Tests; D012111:Residence Characteristics / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D012923:Social Class; D014754:Violence / Q000208:ethnology / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D044465:White People; D001741:Black or African American
chemical_list: D007854:Lead