title: Landmark discrimination learning in the dog: effects of age, an antioxidant fortified food, and cognitive strategy.
abstract: The landmark discrimination learning test can be used to assess the ability to utilize allocentric spatial information to locate targets. The present experiments examined the role of various factors on performance of a landmark discrimination learning task in beagle dogs. Experiments 1 and 2 looked at the effects of age and food composition. Experiments 3 and 4 were aimed at characterizing the cognitive strategies used in performance on this task and in long-term retention. Cognitively equivalent groups of old and young dogs were placed into either a test group maintained on food enriched with a broad-spectrum of antioxidants and mitochondrial cofactors, or a control group maintained on a complete and balanced food formulated for adult dogs. Following a wash-in period, the dogs were tested on a series of problems, in which reward was obtained when the animal responded selectively to the object closest to a thin wooden block, which served as a landmark. In Experiment 1, dogs were first trained to respond to a landmark placed directly on top of coaster, landmark 0 (L0). In the next phase of testing, the landmark was moved at successively greater distances (1, 4 or 10 cm) away from the reward object. Learning varied as a function of age group, food group, and task. The young dogs learned all of the tasks more quickly than the old dogs. The aged dogs on the enriched food learned L0 significantly more rapidly than aged dogs on control food. A higher proportion of dogs on the enriched food learned the task, when the distance was increased to 1cm. Experiment 2 showed that accuracy decreased with increased distance between the reward object and landmark, and this effect was greater in old animals. Experiment 3 showed stability of performance, despite using a novel landmark, and new locations, indicating that dogs learned the landmark concept. Experiment 4 found age impaired long-term retention of the landmark task. These results indicate that allocentric spatial learning is impaired in an age-dependent manner in dogs, and that age also affects performance when the distance between the landmark and target is increased. In addition, these results both support a role of oxidative damage in the development of age-associated cognitive dysfunction and indicate that short-term administration of a food enriched with supplemental antioxidants and mitochondrial cofactors can partially reverse the deleterious effects of aging on cognition.
authors.affiliation: Life Science Division, University of Toronto at Scarborough, 1265 Military Trail, Scarborough, Ont., Canada M1C 1A4. milgram@psych.utoronto.ca
authors.forename: Norton W
authors.initials: NW
authors.lastname: Milgram
authors.forename: E
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Head
authors.forename: B
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Muggenburg
authors.forename: D
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Holowachuk
authors.forename: H
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Murphey
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Estrada
authors.forename: C J
authors.initials: CJ
authors.lastname: Ikeda-Douglas
authors.forename: S C
authors.initials: SC
authors.lastname: Zicker
authors.forename: C W
authors.initials: CW
authors.lastname: Cotman
mesh_terms: D000367:Age Factors; D000375:Aging / Q000502:physiology*; D000704:Analysis of Variance; D000818:Animals; D000975:Antioxidants / Q000494:pharmacology*; D001774:Blood Chemical Analysis / Q000379:methods; D003071:Cognition / Q000502:physiology*; D004032:Diet; D004193:Discrimination Learning / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000502:physiology*; D004215:Distance Perception / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology; D004285:Dogs / Q000502:physiology; D005260:Female; D008297:Male; D011597:Psychomotor Performance / Q000502:physiology; D012153:Retention, Psychology / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology; D013037:Spatial Behavior / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000502:physiology*; D013647:Task Performance and Analysis; D013997:Time Factors; D014810:Vitamin E / Q000097:blood
chemical_list: D000975:Antioxidants; D014810:Vitamin E