title: Can angiogenesis induced by chronic electrical stimulation enhance latissimus dorsi muscle flap survival for application in cardiomyoplasty?
abstract: In cardiomyoplasty, the latissimus dorsi muscle is lifted on its primary neurovascular pedicle and wrapped around a failing heart. After 2 weeks, it is trained for 6 weeks using chronic electrical stimulation, which transforms the latissimus dorsi muscle into a fatigue-resistant muscle that can contract in synchrony with the beating heart without tiring. In over 600 cardiomyoplasty procedures performed clinically to date, the outcomes have varied. Given the data obtained in animal experiments, the authors believe these variable outcomes are attributable to distal latissimus dorsi muscle flap necrosis. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether the chronic electrical stimulation training used to transform the latissimus dorsi muscle into fatigue-resistant muscle could also be used to induce angiogenesis, increase perfusion, and thus protect the latissimus dorsi muscle flap from distal necrosis. After 14 days of chronic electrical stimulation (10 Hz, 330 microsec, 4 to 6 V continuous, 8 hours/day) of the right or left latissimus dorsi muscle (randomly selected) in 11 rats, both latissimus dorsi muscles were lifted on their thoracodorsal pedicles and returned to their anatomical beds. Four days later, the resulting amount of distal flap necrosis was measured. Also, at predetermined time intervals throughout the experiment, muscle surface blood perfusion was measured using scanning laser Doppler flowmetry. Finally, latissimus dorsi muscles were excised in four additional stimulated rats, to measure angiogenesis (capillary-to-fiber ratio), fiber type (oxidative or glycolytic), and fiber size using histologic specimens. The authors found that chronic electrical stimulation (1) significantly (p < 0.05) increased angiogenesis (mean capillary-to-fiber ratio) by 82 percent and blood perfusion by 36 percent; (2) did not reduce the amount of distal flap necrosis compared with nonchronic electrical stimulation controls (29 +/- 5.3 percent versus 26.6 +/- 5.1 percent); (3) completely transformed the normally mixed (oxidative and glycolytic) fiber type distribution into all oxidative fibers; and (4) reduced fiber size in the proximal and middle but not in the distal segments of the flap. Despite the significant increase in angiogenesis and blood perfusion, distal latissimus dorsi muscle flap necrosis did not decrease. This might be because of three reasons: first, the change in muscle metabolism from anaerobic to aerobic may have rendered the muscle fibers more susceptible to ischemia. Second, because of the larger diameter of the distal fibers in normal and stimulated latissimus dorsi muscle, the diffusion distance for oxygen to the center of the distal fibers is increased, making fiber survival more difficult. Third, even though angiogenesis was significantly increased in the flap, cutting all but the single vascular pedicle resulted in the newly formed capillaries not receiving enough blood to provide nourishment to the distal latissimus dorsi muscle. The authors' findings indicate that chronic electrical stimulation as tested in these experiments could not be used to prevent distal latissimus dorsi muscle flap ischemia and necrosis in cardiomyoplasty.
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery and Physiology, Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, University of Louisville, Ky 40202, USA.
authors.forename: Max L E
authors.initials: ML
authors.lastname: Overgoor
authors.forename: Sean M
authors.initials: SM
authors.lastname: Carroll
authors.forename: George
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Papanicolau
authors.forename: Camilla M A
authors.initials: CM
authors.lastname: Carroll
authors.forename: Tuncay E T
authors.initials: TE
authors.lastname: Ustüner
authors.forename: Richard W
authors.initials: RW
authors.lastname: Stremel
authors.forename: Gary L
authors.initials: GL
authors.lastname: Anderson
authors.forename: Ralph J P M
authors.initials: RJ
authors.lastname: Franken
authors.forename: Moshe
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Kon
authors.forename: John H
authors.initials: JH
authors.lastname: Barker
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D018421:Cardiomyoplasty; D004558:Electric Stimulation / Q000379:methods; D006085:Graft Survival; D017078:Laser-Doppler Flowmetry; D008297:Male; D018485:Muscle Fibers, Skeletal / Q000378:metabolism / Q000473:pathology; D018482:Muscle, Skeletal / Q000098:blood supply / Q000378:metabolism / Q000473:pathology; D009336:Necrosis; D018919:Neovascularization, Physiologic; D051381:Rats; D017207:Rats, Sprague-Dawley; D012039:Regional Blood Flow; D013524:Surgical Flaps / Q000098:blood supply*