title: Emphysema in nonsmokers: alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency and other causes.
abstract: Nonsmokers with signs of emphysema at an earlier age than is typical for emphysema deserve a workup for one of the less common causes of emphysema, which include alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency, connective tissue diseases, hypocomplementemic urticarial vasculitis syndrome, intravenous drug use, human immunodeficiency virus infection, and several rare metabolic disorders.
authors.affiliation: Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, The Cleveland Clinic Foundation, OH 44195, USA.
authors.forename: Pyng
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Lee
authors.forename: Thomas R
authors.initials: TR
authors.lastname: Gildea
authors.forename: James K
authors.initials: JK
authors.lastname: Stoller
mesh_terms: D017668:Age of Onset; D003240:Connective Tissue Diseases / Q000150:complications; D005260:Female; D006679:HIV Seropositivity / Q000150:complications; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D009748:Nutrition Disorders / Q000150:complications; D011656:Pulmonary Emphysema / Q000145:classification / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000209:etiology* / Q000628:therapy; D012140:Respiratory Tract Diseases / Q000150:complications; D015819:Substance Abuse, Intravenous / Q000150:complications; D013577:Syndrome; D014581:Urticaria / Q000150:complications / Q000188:drug therapy; D019896:alpha 1-Antitrypsin Deficiency / Q000150:complications* / Q000235:genetics / Q000628:therapy