title: The foreignness of germs: the persistent association of immigrants and disease in American society.
abstract: During the 20th century the United States witnessed social, political, and economic transformations as well as advancements in medical diagnosis and care. Despite changes in demography, the meaning of citizenship, and the ability to treat and cure acute and chronic diseases, foreigners were consistently associated with germs and contagion. This article explores why, at critical junctures in American history, immigrants have been stigmatized as the etiology of a variety of physical and societal ills. The article analyzes three periods from 1880 to the present and suggests that now, as germs progressively and, often, indiscriminately cross national, social, and economic boundaries through multiple vectors, the mistakes of the past must not be repeated. Protecting the public health in the current era of globalization requires an ecumenical, pragmatic, and historically informed approach to understanding the links between immigration and disease.
authors.affiliation: University of Michigan, USA. howard@umich.edu
authors.forename: Howard
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Markel
authors.forename: Alexandra Minna
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Stern
mesh_terms: D002908:Chronic Disease; D003140:Communicable Disease Control / Q000266:history; D004196:Disease Outbreaks / Q000266:history* / Q000517:prevention & control; D018562:Disease Transmission, Infectious / Q000266:history* / Q000517:prevention & control; D004641:Emigration and Immigration / Q000266:history*; D049672:History, 19th Century; D049673:History, 20th Century; D006801:Humans; D015980:Public Health Practice / Q000266:history*; D014481:United States / Q000453:epidemiology