title: Management of the violent patient.
abstract: Emergency medical services (EMS) providers must often manage violent or combative patients. The data regarding violence against EMS personnel are poor, but according to studies conducted thus far, between 0.8% and 5.0% of incidents to which EMS personnel respond involve violence or the threat of violence. Physical or chemical restraint is usually the only option available to emergency care providers to control violent patients. Physical restraint, however, can lead to sudden death in otherwise healthy patients, possibly as a result of positional asphyxia, severe acidosis, or a patient's excited delirium. Chemical restraint has traditionally consisted of either neuroleptics or benzodiazepines, but those drugs also have drawbacks. Haloperidol and droperidol, the neuroleptics most frequently used for restraint, can cause serious side effects such as extrapyramidal symptoms or QTc (QT interval corrected for heart rate) prolongation. The Food and Drug Administration recently issued a black box warning regarding the use of droperidol, because the QTc prolongation associated with the drug has led to fatal torsades de pointes in some patients. Benzodiazepines are also associated with adverse effects, such as sedation and respiratory depression, especially when the drugs are mixed with alcohol. The atypical antipsychotics, a new option that may be available soon, are less likely to cause such effects and therefore may be preferred over the neuroleptics. Liquid and injectable formulations of various atypical antipsychotics are currently in clinical trials. Because few options are currently available to EMS personnel for managing violent patients outside of the hospital, more research regarding violence against emergency care providers is necessary.
authors.affiliation: Department of Emergency Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7594, USA. brice@med.unc.edu
authors.forename: Jane H
authors.initials: JH
authors.lastname: Brice
authors.forename: Ronald G
authors.initials: RG
authors.lastname: Pirrallo
authors.forename: Edward
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Racht
authors.forename: Brian S
authors.initials: BS
authors.lastname: Zachariah
authors.forename: Jon
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Krohmer
mesh_terms: D014150:Antipsychotic Agents / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D004632:Emergency Medical Services / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D006801:Humans; D001523:Mental Disorders / Q000145:classification / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000503:physiopathology; D012149:Restraint, Physical / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000379:methods*; D014754:Violence
chemical_list: D014150:Antipsychotic Agents