title: Management of late complications of pelvic radiation in the rectum and anus: a review.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Radiotherapy has become one of the most important treatment modalities for human malignancy. Tumors affecting the organs of the pelvis are increasingly being irradiated for local treatment benefit, with the subsequent complication of anorectal injury of varying extent. The aim of this review is to determine how to manage the consequences of long-term effects of radiotherapy on the rectum and anus.
  
  
  METHODS
  A comprehensive search of the literature with manual cross-referencing was performed using the MEDLINE, PubMed, and Cochrane Databases.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Long-term manifestations of injury caused by pelvic radiotherapy include abscess and fistula formation, stricture, mucus discharge, urgency, tenesmus, diarrhea, increased risk of cancer, and most commonly, bleeding. Most patients present with several symptoms; however, usually one symptom dominates.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Many of these symptoms are self-limiting, and mucosal complications may often be treated by nonsurgical methods such as topical formalin application, endoscopic argon plasma coagulation, and hyperbaric oxygen therapy. Conservative measures have not been shown to be of benefit if symptoms persist. Structural abnormalities and septic complications are likely to require surgery. Modern techniques in the delivery of radiotherapy help minimize the likelihood of rectal complications.
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, Christchurch Hospital, New Zealand.
authors.forename: M J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Johnston
authors.forename: G M
authors.initials: GM
authors.lastname: Robertson
authors.forename: F A
authors.initials: FA
authors.lastname: Frizelle
mesh_terms: D001003:Anal Canal / Q000528:radiation effects*; D002986:Clinical Trials as Topic; D003938:Diagnostic Techniques, Digestive System; D013505:Digestive System Surgical Procedures; D006801:Humans; D006931:Hyperbaric Oxygenation; D007413:Intestinal Mucosa / Q000528:radiation effects*; D010388:Pelvis / Q000528:radiation effects*; D011832:Radiation Injuries / Q000209:etiology / Q000628:therapy*; D011879:Radiotherapy Dosage; D012002:Rectal Diseases / Q000209:etiology / Q000628:therapy*; D012007:Rectum / Q000528:radiation effects