title: The relationships between atopy, rhinitis and asthma: pathophysiological considerations.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  A close relationship has been described between atopy, allergic rhinitis and asthma. The purpose of this work was to review recent data that have become available on the interactions between these conditions and the ways in which they influence one another.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Recent findings support previous observations suggesting that atopic dermatitis and rhinitis often accompany or precede the development of asthma. Further data support the notion that early-life exposure to domestic animals, a farming environment, passive smoking, and being raised in a large family, may be protective against the development of atopy and/or allergic diseases, although this seems modulated by genetic factors. Furthermore, the appearance of house-dust-mite-specific immunoglobulin E antibodies in early childhood has been identified as a major risk factor for the development of asthma in children with atopic dermatitis; and the association between sensitization to specific allergens and airway hyperresponsiveness was reported to be the strongest for indoor allergens such as house-dust-mite and cat. Allergen exposure can increase airway responsiveness in non-asthmatic subjects with allergic rhinitis and is associated with an increase in markers of lower airway inflammation, particularly with indoor allergens. Furthermore, nasal allergen provocation can induce bronchial inflammation and vice versa, suggesting close interrelations between upper and lower airways.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  In summary, the recent observations on the relationships between atopy, rhinitis and asthma support the hypothesis of a unique systemic condition with variable manifestations, which may develop following an imbalance between T helper cell types 1 and 2 lymphocyte populations. The latter may be influenced by environmental exposure in early life. Upper- and lower-airway inflammatory events influence each other, supporting the concept of 'united airways'. Further studies should look at the relationships between these conditions to identify individuals at high-risk of developing them and develop strategies to possibly prevent their onset.
authors.affiliation: Laval University Cardio-Thoracic Institute, Laval Hospital, Quebec City, Canada.
authors.forename: Marie-Eve
authors.initials: ME
authors.lastname: Boulay
authors.forename: Louis-Philippe
authors.initials: LP
authors.lastname: Boulet
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001249:Asthma / Q000276:immunology / Q000503:physiopathology*; D016535:Bronchial Hyperreactivity / Q000276:immunology; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D006801:Humans; D006969:Hypersensitivity, Immediate / Q000276:immunology / Q000503:physiopathology*; D007223:Infant; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D012221:Rhinitis, Allergic, Perennial / Q000276:immunology / Q000503:physiopathology*