title: Fabrication of homogeneously cross-linked, functional alginate microcapsules validated by NMR-, CLSM- and AFM-imaging.
abstract: Cross-linked alginate microcapsules of sufficient mechanical strength can immunoisolate cells for the long-term treatment of hormone and other deficiency diseases in human beings. However, gelation of alginate by external Ba(2+) (or other divalent cations) produces non-homogeneous cross-linking of the polymeric mannuronic (M) and guluronic (G) acid chains. The stability of such microcapsules is rather limited. Here, we show that homogeneous cross-linking can be achieved by injecting BaCl(2) crystals into alginate droplets before they come into contact with external BaCl(2). The high effectiveness of this crystal gun method is demonstrated by confocal laser scanning microscopy and by advanced nuclear magnetic resonance imaging. Both techniques gave clear-cut evidence that homogeneous cross-linkage throughout the microcapsule is only obtained with simultaneous internal and external gelation. Atomic force microscopy showed a very smooth surface topography for microcapsules made by the crystal gun method, provided that excess Ba(2+) ions were removed immediately after gelation. In vitro experiments showed greatly suppressed swelling for crystal gun microcapsules. Even alginate extracted from Lessonia nigrescens (highly biocompatible) yielded microcapsules with long-term mechanical stability not hitherto possible. Encapsulation of rat islets, human monoclonal antibodies secreting hybridoma cells and murine mesenchymal stem cells transfected with cDNA encoding for bone morphogenetic protein (BMP-4) revealed that injection of BaCl(2) crystals has no adverse side effects on cell viability and function. However, the release of low-molecular weight factors (such as insulin) may be delayed when using alginate concentrations in the usual range.
authors.affiliation: Arbeitsgruppe Tieftemperatur-Biophysik, Fraunhofer Institut für Biomedizinische Technik (IBMT), 66386, St. Ingbert, Germany.
authors.forename: H
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Zimmermann
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Hillgärtner
authors.forename: B
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Manz
authors.forename: P
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Feilen
authors.forename: F
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Brunnenmeier
authors.forename: U
authors.initials: U
authors.lastname: Leinfelder
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Weber
authors.forename: H
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Cramer
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Schneider
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Hendrich
authors.forename: F
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Volke
authors.forename: U
authors.initials: U
authors.lastname: Zimmermann
mesh_terms: D000464:Alginates / Q000737:chemistry*; D001464:Barium / Q000737:chemistry; D017609:Barium Compounds / Q000494:pharmacology; D055415:Bone Morphogenetic Protein 4; D019485:Bone Morphogenetic Proteins / Q000737:chemistry; D002412:Cations; D045744:Cell Line, Tumor; D002470:Cell Survival; D002712:Chlorides / Q000494:pharmacology; D003432:Cross-Linking Reagents / Q000494:pharmacology; D018076:DNA, Complementary / Q000378:metabolism; D020723:Glucuronic Acid / Q000737:chemistry*; D006603:Hexuronic Acids / Q000737:chemistry*; D006801:Humans; D007328:Insulin / Q000737:chemistry; D007477:Ions; D009682:Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy / Q000379:methods*; D018625:Microscopy, Atomic Force / Q000379:methods*; D018613:Microscopy, Confocal / Q000379:methods*; D014162:Transfection
chemical_list: D000464:Alginates; C525809:BMP4 protein, human; D017609:Barium Compounds; C525811:Bmp4 protein, rat; D055415:Bone Morphogenetic Protein 4; D019485:Bone Morphogenetic Proteins; D002412:Cations; D002712:Chlorides; D003432:Cross-Linking Reagents; D018076:DNA, Complementary; D006603:Hexuronic Acids; D007328:Insulin; D007477:Ions; C024986:barium chloride; D001464:Barium; D020723:Glucuronic Acid