title: Race, medicine, and health care in the United States: a historical survey.
abstract: Racism in medicine, a problem with roots over 2,500 years old, is a historical continuum that continuously affects African-American health and the way they receive healthcare. Racism is, at least in part, responsible for the fact African Americans, since arriving as slaves, have had the worst health care, the worst health status, and the worst health outcome of any racial or ethnic group in the U.S. Many famous doctors, philosophers, and scientists of each historical era were involved in creating and perpetuating racial inferiority mythology and stereotypes. Such theories were routinely taught in U.S. medical schools in the 18th, 19th, and first half of the 20th centuries. The conceptualization of race moved from the biological to the sociological sphere with the march of science. The atmosphere created by racial inferiority theories and stereotypes, 246 years of black chattel slavery, along with biased educational processes, almost inevitably led to medical and scientific abuse, unethical experimentation, and overutilization of African-Americans as subjects for teaching and training purposes.
authors.affiliation: Harvard School of Public Health, Division of Public Health Practice, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
authors.forename: W M
authors.initials: WM
authors.lastname: Byrd
authors.forename: L A
authors.initials: LA
authors.lastname: Clayton
mesh_terms: D001741:Black or African American; D015510:Clinical Medicine / Q000266:history* / Q000592:standards; D003695:Delivery of Health Care / Q000941:ethics / Q000266:history* / Q000592:standards; D026690:Ethics, Clinical; D049672:History, 19th Century; D049673:History, 20th Century; D006805:Human Experimentation / Q000941:ethics; D006801:Humans; D011287:Prejudice; D013240:Stereotyping; D014481:United States