title: Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma ligand inhibits cell growth and invasion of human pancreatic cancer cells.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma) is expressed in certain human cancers; ligand-induced PPARgamma activation can result in growth inhibition and differentiation in these cells. However, the precise mechanism for the antiproliferative effect of PPARgamma ligands is not entirely known.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of PPARgamma ligands on pancreatic cancer cell growth and invasiveness.
  
  
  METHODS
  The effect of two PPARgamma ligands, 15 deoxy-delta12,14 prostaglandin J2 (15d-PGJ2) and ciglitazone, on the growth of four human pancreatic cancer cell lines (BxPC-3, MIA PaCa-2, Panc-1, and L3.6) was assessed. Expression of cell-cycle and apoptotic-related proteins was measured. Finally, the effect of 15d-PGJ2 on pancreatic cancer cell invasiveness and matrix metalloproteinase expression was determined.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Both 15d-PGJ2 and ciglitazone inhibited the growth of all four pancreatic cancer cell lines in a dose- and time-dependent fashion. Treatment of BxPC-3 cells with 15d-PGJ2 resulted in a time-dependent decrease in cyclin D1 expression associated with a concomitant induction of p21waf1 and p27kip1. In addition, 15d-PGJ2 treatment induced apoptosis through activation of caspase-8, -9, and -3. Moreover, pancreatic cancer cell invasiveness was significantly suppressed after treatment with a nontoxic dose of 15d-PGJ2, which was associated with a reduction of MMP-2 and MMP-9 protein levels and activity.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These results demonstrate that PPARgamma ligands have the dual advantage of inhibiting pancreatic cancer cell growth while reducing the invasiveness of the tumor cells, suggesting a potential role for these agents in the adjuvant treatment of pancreatic cancer.
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0536, USA.
authors.forename: Koji
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Hashimoto
authors.forename: Richard T
authors.initials: RT
authors.lastname: Ethridge
authors.forename: B Mark
authors.initials: BM
authors.lastname: Evers
mesh_terms: D016475:3T3 Cells / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism; D000230:Adenocarcinoma / Q000378:metabolism / Q000473:pathology*; D000818:Animals; D000970:Antineoplastic Agents / Q000494:pharmacology*; D017209:Apoptosis / Q000187:drug effects; D015820:Cadherins / Q000096:biosynthesis / Q000235:genetics; D053148:Caspase 3; D053181:Caspase 8; D053453:Caspase 9; D020169:Caspases / Q000378:metabolism; D002453:Cell Cycle / Q000187:drug effects; D018797:Cell Cycle Proteins / Q000096:biosynthesis / Q000235:genetics; D002455:Cell Division / Q000187:drug effects; D003094:Collagen; D019938:Cyclin D1 / Q000096:biosynthesis / Q000235:genetics; D050759:Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitor p21; D050760:Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitor p27; D016213:Cyclins / Q000096:biosynthesis / Q000235:genetics; D051546:Cyclooxygenase 2; D003598:Cytoskeletal Proteins / Q000096:biosynthesis / Q000235:genetics; D004338:Drug Combinations; D004790:Enzyme Induction / Q000187:drug effects; D015972:Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic / Q000187:drug effects; D006801:Humans; D007527:Isoenzymes / Q000096:biosynthesis / Q000235:genetics; D007797:Laminin; D008024:Ligands; D020778:Matrix Metalloproteinase 2 / Q000378:metabolism; D020780:Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 / Q000378:metabolism; D008565:Membrane Proteins; D051379:Mice; D009361:Neoplasm Invasiveness; D009363:Neoplasm Proteins / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism; D010190:Pancreatic Neoplasms / Q000378:metabolism / Q000473:pathology*; D015230:Prostaglandin D2 / Q000031:analogs & derivatives / Q000494:pharmacology*; D011451:Prostaglandin-Endoperoxide Synthases / Q000096:biosynthesis / Q000235:genetics; D011509:Proteoglycans; D018160:Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear / Q000187:drug effects*; D013844:Thiazoles / Q000494:pharmacology*; D045162:Thiazolidinediones; D015534:Trans-Activators / Q000096:biosynthesis / Q000235:genetics; D014157:Transcription Factors / Q000187:drug effects*; D014407:Tumor Cells, Cultured / Q000187:drug effects; D025521:Tumor Suppressor Proteins / Q000096:biosynthesis / Q000235:genetics; D051178:alpha Catenin; D051176:beta Catenin
chemical_list: C097240:15-deoxy-delta(12,14)-prostaglandin J2; D000970:Antineoplastic Agents; C493956:CDKN1A protein, human; C495273:CTNNA1 protein, human; C495270:CTNNB1 protein, human; C495267:CTNNB1 protein, mouse; D015820:Cadherins; C493957:Cdkn1a protein, mouse; C493961:Cdkn1b protein, mouse; D018797:Cell Cycle Proteins; C495272:Ctnna1 protein, mouse; D050759:Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitor p21; D016213:Cyclins; D003598:Cytoskeletal Proteins; D004338:Drug Combinations; D007527:Isoenzymes; D007797:Laminin; D008024:Ligands; D008565:Membrane Proteins; D009363:Neoplasm Proteins; D011509:Proteoglycans; D018160:Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear; D013844:Thiazoles; D045162:Thiazolidinediones; D015534:Trans-Activators; D014157:Transcription Factors; D025521:Tumor Suppressor Proteins; D051178:alpha Catenin; D051176:beta Catenin; C059485:matrigel; D019938:Cyclin D1; D050760:Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitor p27; D003094:Collagen; D051546:Cyclooxygenase 2; C496540:PTGS2 protein, human; D011451:Prostaglandin-Endoperoxide Synthases; C505407:CASP3 protein, human; C505530:CASP8 protein, human; C506433:CASP9 protein, human; C505409:Casp3 protein, mouse; C505526:Casp8 protein, mouse; C506434:Casp9 protein, mouse; D053148:Caspase 3; D053181:Caspase 8; D053453:Caspase 9; D020169:Caspases; D020778:Matrix Metalloproteinase 2; D020780:Matrix Metalloproteinase 9; D015230:Prostaglandin D2; C039671:ciglitazone