title: The use and resistance to antibiotics in the community.
abstract: The frequency of resistance to antibiotics among common community-acquired pathogens, and the number of drugs to which they are resistant have been increasing worldwide. The relationship between antibiotic usage and resistance is strongly supported by data from several studies. Countries with the highest per capita antibiotic consumption have the highest resistance. The emergence of penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae is related to high consumption of antibiotics in general, as well as to increased use of aminopenicillins and/or probably to wider use of oral cephalosporins. Increased consumption of macrolides, especially the long-acting ones, correlates significantly with the level of macrolide resistance of group A streptococci and S. pneumoniae while increased use of oral cephalosporins might be associated with the increase of beta-lactamase-producing strains of Moraxella catarrhalis. Trimethoprim/sulphamethoxazole resistance is strongly associated with resistance to penicillin. A rise in consumption of fluoroquinolones is consonant with a higher rate of resistance to quinolones of S. pneumoniae, Escherichia coli and other Gram-negative bacteria. Paediatric bacterial isolates are more often resistant to various antimicrobial agents than isolates from adult patients; this higher resistance rate may be due to more frequent antimicrobial treatments in children, and extensive child to child transmission. Reliable data on antimicrobial consumption and resistance should form a basis for national policies devised to reduce the resistance of microorganisms to antibiotics.
authors.affiliation: University Medical Centre, Department of Infectious Diseases, Japljeva 2, 1525 Ljubljana, Slovenia. milan.cizman@mf.uni-lj.si
authors.forename: Milan
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Cizman
mesh_terms: D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000145:classification / Q000493:pharmacokinetics / Q000494:pharmacology; D024881:Drug Resistance, Bacterial; D018432:Drug Resistance, Multiple; D004926:Escherichia coli / Q000187:drug effects*; D014943:Global Health; D006291:Health Policy; D006801:Humans; D001936:Moraxella catarrhalis / Q000187:drug effects*; D013296:Streptococcus pneumoniae / Q000187:drug effects*
chemical_list: D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents