title: Spoilage of bottled red wine by acetic acid bacteria.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To determine the bacterial species associated with an outbreak of spoilage in commercially bottled red wine where the bottles had been stored in an upright vertical compared with horizontal position.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Bottled wines comprising Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot Noir, Shiraz, Merlot and blended red varieties were examined for visible spoilage. Analysis of visibly affected and non-affected wines revealed a spectrum of aroma and flavour defects, ranging from loss of fruity aroma, staleness, oxidized character to overt volatile acidity. Only acetic acid bacteria, and not yeast or lactic acid bacteria, could be isolated from both spoiled and unspoiled wines and were found to grow only on Wallerstein Nutrient (WL) medium supplemented with 10% red wine or 1-2% ethanol. Analysis of the 16S rRNA region and RAPD-PCR analysis showed the isolates to be a closely related group of Acetobacter pasteurianus, but this group was differentiated from the group comprising beer, vinegar and cider strains.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  A. pasteurianus was the species considered responsible for the spoilage but the isolates obtained had atypical properties for this species. In particular, they failed to grow on WL nutrient medium without ethanol or wine supplementation. Storage of the bottles of wine containing A. pasteurianus in an upright vertical position specifically induced growth and spoilage in a proportion of the bottles under conditions that were inhibitory for horizontally stored bottles. We hypothesize that the upright position created a heterogeneous environment that allowed the growth of bacteria in only those bottles sealed with cork closures that had upper limit for the natural permeability to oxygen. Such a heterogeneous environment would not exist in horizontally stored bottles as the larger volume of wine adjacent to the cork would strongly compete with the bacteria for the oxygen as it diffuses through the cork closure.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  A low level of bacteria (acetic acid bacteria) in wine can proliferate and cause wine spoilage in bottles stored in an upright vertical as opposed to an horizontal position under conditions that would normally limit bacterial development.
authors.affiliation: The Australian Wine Research Institute, Glen Osmond, SA, Australia. eveline.bartowsky@awri.com.au
authors.forename: E J
authors.initials: EJ
authors.lastname: Bartowsky
authors.forename: D
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Xia
authors.forename: R L
authors.initials: RL
authors.lastname: Gibson
authors.forename: G H
authors.initials: GH
authors.lastname: Fleet
authors.forename: P A
authors.initials: PA
authors.lastname: Henschke
mesh_terms: D019342:Acetic Acid / Q000378:metabolism; D000091:Acetobacter / Q000145:classification / Q000302:isolation & purification* / Q000378:metabolism; D015169:Colony Count, Microbial; D005285:Fermentation; D005516:Food Microbiology; D006863:Hydrogen-Ion Concentration; D010802:Phylogeny; D013696:Temperature; D014920:Wine / Q000382:microbiology*
chemical_list: D019342:Acetic Acid