Cell death induced by the phenolic antioxidant tert-butylhydroquinone and its metabolite tert-butylquinone in human monocytic leukemia U937 cells.
2-tert-Butyl-4-hydroquinone (TBHQ), a phenolic antioxidant used as a food additive, and its metabolite 2-tert-butyl-1,4-benzoquinone (TBQ) were both cytotoxic in human monocytic leukemia U937 cells, TBQ being the more strongly cytotoxic. Both compounds induced caspase activity towards DEVD-MCA as a substrate and the cleavage of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase in cells. Enzyme activities of caspase-3,-7,-6 and -9 seemed to be induced, and procaspases-3 and-7 were processed to active forms in cells treated with TBHQ and TBQ. They induced nuclear condensation and fragmentation in some cells. Electron microscopic examination revealed severe disruption of mitochondrial structure and the formation of intracellular vacuoles. Morphological changes were more marked in the cells treated with TBHQ than TBQ. Mitochondrial transmembrane potential was disrupted. Cytochrome c was released from mitochondria to cytosol and ATP level was moderately decreased by the treatment of cells with these chemicals. Cellular glutathione (GSH) appeared to contribute to defense against cell death induced by TBQ, but its contribution was not marked in the case of TBHQ. TBHQ and TBQ exhibited the apoptotic features in various assays, but the mode of cell death may not be defined as a typical apoptosis or necrosis.
Okubo
T
T
Department of Toxicology, The Tokyo Metropolitan Research Laboratory of Public Health, 3-24-1 Hyakunin-cho, Shinjuku-ku, Japan. okubo@tokyo-eiken.go.jp
Yokoyama
Y
Y
Kano
K
K
Kano
I
I
D000255:Adenosine Triphosphate / Q000378:metabolism; D000975:Antioxidants / Q000009:adverse effects*; D017209:Apoptosis / Q000187:drug effects*; D016227:Benzoquinones / Q000009:adverse effects*; D020169:Caspases / Q000494:pharmacology; D004790:Enzyme Induction; D005978:Glutathione / Q000032:analysis; D006801:Humans; D006873:Hydroquinones / Q000009:adverse effects*; D007951:Leukemia, Myeloid / Q000473:pathology; D008564:Membrane Potentials; D008854:Microscopy, Electron; D008928:Mitochondria / Q000473:pathology* / Q000648:ultrastructure; D009336:Necrosis; D014407:Tumor Cells, Cultured
D000975:Antioxidants; D016227:Benzoquinones; D006873:Hydroquinones; D000255:Adenosine Triphosphate; C018855:2-tert-butylhydroquinone; D020169:Caspases; C051290:2-tert-butyl-4-quinone; D005978:Glutathione