title: Comparing nutrient intake from food to the estimated average requirements shows middle- to upper-income pregnant women lack iron and possibly magnesium.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To determine whether nutrient intake from food alone was adequate across trimesters for middle- to upper-income pregnant women when compared with estimated average requirements (EAR), and to determine whether food intake exceeded the tolerable upper intake level (UL) for any nutrient.
  
  
  METHODS
  Observational study in which pregnant women completed 3-day diet records each month during their pregnancy. Records were analyzed for nutrient content, and usual intake distributions were determined.
  
  
  METHODS
  Subjects were low-risk women in their first trimester of pregnancy (living in middle- to upper-income households). Ninety-four women were recruited, and sixty-three participated.
  
  
  METHODS
  Nutrient intake data were adjusted to achieve normality by using a power transformation. A mixed model method was used to assess trends in intake over time, and to estimate mean intake and within-subjects and between-subjects variance. The usual intake distribution for each nutrient was determined and compared with the EAR and UL.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The probabilities of usual nutrient intake from food being less than the EAR were highest for iron (.91), magnesium (.53), zinc (.31), vitamin B6 (.21), selenium (.20), and vitamin C (.12). Women were not at risk of exceeding the UL from food intake for any nutrient studied.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Study participants did not consume adequate amounts of iron from food to meet the needs of pregnancy, and therefore iron supplementation is warranted in this population. Intake of magnesium was suboptimal using the EAR as a cut-point for adequacy.
authors.affiliation: Food Science and Human Nutrition Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-0370, USA. returner@mail.ifas.ufl.edu
authors.forename: R Elaine
authors.initials: RE
authors.lastname: Turner
authors.forename: Bobbi
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Langkamp-Henken
authors.forename: Ramon C
authors.initials: RC
authors.lastname: Littell
authors.forename: Michael J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Lukowski
authors.forename: Maria F
authors.initials: MF
authors.lastname: Suarez
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000704:Analysis of Variance; D004032:Diet / Q000639:trends*; D015930:Diet Records; D004034:Diet Surveys; D019587:Dietary Supplements; D002149:Energy Intake; D005260:Female; D005504:Food Analysis; D006801:Humans; D000090463:Iron Deficiencies; D019266:Iron, Dietary / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D008274:Magnesium / Q000008:administration & dosage; D008275:Magnesium Deficiency / Q000453:epidemiology*; D008903:Minerals / Q000008:administration & dosage; D015596:Nutrition Assessment; D009751:Nutritional Requirements; D011247:Pregnancy / Q000502:physiology*; D012449:Safety; D014815:Vitamins / Q000008:administration & dosage
chemical_list: D019266:Iron, Dietary; D008903:Minerals; D014815:Vitamins; D008274:Magnesium