title: Radiopaque markers in endovascular stents--benefit and potential hazards.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of radiopaque markers on stent visibility. The secondary objective was to investigate the impact of such radiopaque markers on localized corrosion at the stent corpus-marker interfaces.
  
  
  METHODS
  The radiopacity of the following stents was evaluated at different fluoroscopy modes (spotfilm, continuous fluoroscopy, 15 p/s, 7.5 p/s, 3 p/s): Memotherm Flexx (FX), Memotherm Luminexx (LX)(Bard), SMART (SM), SMARTeR (SMR)(Cordis). Four readers evaluated a total of 3200 images (160 per stent per fluoro mode) according to the following radiopacity score (RS): 0 = no stent visible, 1 = poor, 2 = acceptable, 3 = good, and 4 = very good stent visibility. LX and SMR stents (n = 5/group) were subjected to potentiodynamic polarization testing in de-aerated Hanks salt solution at 37 degrees C using a potentiostat. Palmaz-Schatz stents (n = 3) were used as the control group for comparative evaluation. The corrosion current density (I corr ) and the breakdown value (E bd ) were compared parameters of interest.
  
  
  RESULTS
  At the spotfilm mode the LX, the SM and the SMR were rated well to very well visible in 99 %, 96 %, 96 %, and the FX only in 64 %. At 7.5 p/s (standard fluoro mode) the LX was considered to be well to very well visible in 77 %, followed by the SMR in 12.5 %, the SM in 1 %, and the FX in 0 %. The SMR stents exhibited the highest E bd values (802 +/- 112 mV vs SCE), while the LX stents exhibited the lowest E bd values (155 +/- 38 mV vs SCE). Also, the average E bd values for the SMR stents were better than those exhibited by the PS stents (503 +/- 107 mV vs SCE).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Stent radiopacity can be increased significantly with the help of radiopaque markers (p < 0,0001 LX vs. FX). However, the surface condition of the stent corpus and the mode of attachment of the marker onto the corpus may have a significant impact on the uniformity of the final corrosion behavior. It is not feasible to determine the clinical impact of this localized corrosion behavior from this in vitro study. Further experimentation is recommended to ascertain the same.
authors.affiliation: Department of Diagnostic Radiology, University Hospital Tübingen, Germany. Jakub.wiskirchen@med.uni-tuebingen.de
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Wiskirchen
authors.forename: R
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Venugopalan
authors.forename: A D
authors.initials: AD
authors.lastname: Holton
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: König
authors.forename: U
authors.initials: U
authors.lastname: Kramer
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Trübenbach
authors.forename: G
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Tepe
authors.forename: C D
authors.initials: CD
authors.lastname: Claussen
authors.forename: St H
authors.initials: SH
authors.lastname: Duda
mesh_terms: D020099:Coated Materials, Biocompatible; D003287:Contrast Media; D003343:Corrosion; D019544:Equipment Failure Analysis / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D005471:Fluoroscopy; D006801:Humans; D008432:Mathematical Computing; D008855:Microscopy, Electron, Scanning; D019047:Phantoms, Imaging; D011474:Prosthesis Design; D015607:Stents / Q000706:statistics & numerical data
chemical_list: D020099:Coated Materials, Biocompatible; D003287:Contrast Media