title: Design of Phase II cancer trials evaluating survival probabilities.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Phase II cancer studies are undertaken to assess the activity of a new drug or a new treatment regimen. Activity is sometimes defined in terms of a survival probability, a binary outcome such as one-year survival that is derived from a time-to-event variable. Phase II studies are usually designed with an interim analysis so they can be stopped if early results are disappointing. Most designs that allow for an interim look are not appropriate for monitoring survival probabilities since many patients will not have enough follow-up by the time of the interim analysis, thus necessitating an inconvenient suspension of accrual while patients are being followed.
  
  
  METHODS
  Two-stage phase II clinical trial designs are developed for evaluating survival probabilities. These designs are compared to fixed sample designs and to existing designs developed to monitor binomial probabilities to illustrate the expected reduction in sample size or study length possible with the use of the proposed designs.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Savings can be realized in both the duration of accrual and the total study length, with the expected savings increasing as the accrual rate decreases. Misspecifying the underlying survival distribution and the accrual rate during the planning phase can adversely influence the operating characteristics of the designs.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Two-stage phase II trials for assessing survival probabilities can be designed that do not require prolonged suspension of patient accrual. These designs are more efficient than single stage designs and more practical than existing two-stage designs developed for binomial outcomes, particularly in trials with slow accrual.
authors.affiliation: Department of Public Health Sciences and the Comprehensive Cancer Center of Wake Forest University, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Medical Center Blvd, Winston-Salem, NC, USA. dcase@wfubmc.edu
authors.forename: L Douglas
authors.initials: LD
authors.lastname: Case
authors.forename: Timothy M
authors.initials: TM
authors.lastname: Morgan
mesh_terms: D017322:Clinical Trials, Phase II as Topic / Q000379:methods* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D003198:Computer Simulation; D006801:Humans; D015233:Models, Statistical; D012107:Research Design / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D016019:Survival Analysis