Selective COX-2 inhibitors and dual acting anti-inflammatory drugs: critical remarks.
Non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are still the most commonly used remedies for rheumatic diseases. But NSAIDs produce serious adverse effects, the most important being gastric injury up to gastric ulceration and renal damage. Several strategies have been adopted in order to avoid these shortcomings, especially gastrointestinal toxicity. So, non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs have been associated with gastroprotective agents that counteract the damaging effects of prostaglandin synthesis suppression: however, a combination therapy introduces problems of pharmacokinetics, toxicity, and patient s compliance. Also incorporation of a nitric oxide (NO)-generating moiety into the molecule of several NSAIDs was shown to greatly attenuate their ulcerogenic activity: however, several findings suggest a possible involvement of NO in the pathogenesis of arthritis and subsequent tissue destruction. A most promising approach seemed to be the preparation of novel NSAIDs, specific for the inducible isoform of cyclooxygenase (COX-2): they appear to be devoid of gastrointestinal toxicity, in that they spare mucosal prostaglandin synthesis. However, a number of recent studies raised serious questions about the two central tenets that support this approach, namely that the prostaglandins that mediate inflammation and pain are produced solely via COX-2 and that the prostaglandins that are important in gastrointestinal and renal function are produced solely via COX-1. So, increasing evidence shows that COX-2 (not only COX-1) also plays a physiological role in several body functions and that, conversely, COX-1 (not only COX-2) may also be induced at sites of inflammation. Moreover, COX-2 selective NSAIDs have lost the cardiovascular protective effects of non-selective NSAIDs, effects which are mediated through COX-1 inhibition (in addition, COX-2 has a role in sustaining vascular prostacyclin production). The products generated by the 5-lipoxygenase pathway (leukotrienes) are particularly important in inflammation: indeed, leukotrienes increase microvascular permeability and are potent chemotactic agents; moreover, inhibition of 5-lipoxygenase indirectly reduces the expression of TNF-alpha (a cytokine that plays a key role in inflammation). This explains the efforts to obtain drugs able to inhibit both 5-lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenases: the so-called dual acting anti-inflammatory drugs. Such compounds retain the activity of classical NSAIDs, while avoiding their main drawbacks, in that curtailed production of gastroprotective prostaglandins is associated with a concurrent curtailed production of the gastro-damaging and bronchoconstrictive leukotrienes. Moreover, thanks to their mechanism of action, dual acting anti-inflammatory drugs could not merely alleviate symptoms of rheumatic diseases, but might also satisfy, at least in part, the criteria of curative drugs. Indeed, leukotrienes are pro-inflammatory, increase microvascular permeability, are potent chemotactic agents and attract eosinophils, neutrophils and monocytes into the synovium. Finally, recent data strongly suggest that dual inhibitors may have specific protective activity also in neurodegeneration.
Bertolini
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Section of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Medicine, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Largo del Pozzo 71, Modena, 41100, Italy. Bertolini.Alfio@unimo.it
Ottani
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Sandrini
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D000818:Animals; D000894:Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000494:pharmacology* / Q000627:therapeutic use; D002199:Capillary Permeability / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology; D051546:Cyclooxygenase 2; D052246:Cyclooxygenase 2 Inhibitors; D016861:Cyclooxygenase Inhibitors / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000494:pharmacology* / Q000627:therapeutic use; D005767:Gastrointestinal Diseases / Q000139:chemically induced; D006801:Humans; D007527:Isoenzymes / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors* / Q000378:metabolism; D015289:Leukotrienes / Q000378:metabolism; D008084:Lipoxygenase / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism*; D008565:Membrane Proteins; D019636:Neurodegenerative Diseases / Q000378:metabolism; D010146:Pain / Q000188:drug therapy; D011451:Prostaglandin-Endoperoxide Synthases / Q000378:metabolism; D012216:Rheumatic Diseases / Q000188:drug therapy; D013583:Synovial Membrane / Q000378:metabolism
D000894:Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal; D052246:Cyclooxygenase 2 Inhibitors; D016861:Cyclooxygenase Inhibitors; D007527:Isoenzymes; D015289:Leukotrienes; D008565:Membrane Proteins; D008084:Lipoxygenase; D051546:Cyclooxygenase 2; C496540:PTGS2 protein, human; D011451:Prostaglandin-Endoperoxide Synthases