title: Tics and developmental stuttering.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Developmental stuttering affects 1% of the population but its cause remains unclear. Recent PET studies of metabolism in the central nervous system suggest that it may be related to dysfunction in the basal ganglia or its connections with regions of the cortex associated with speech and motor control.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To determine the presence and characteristics of involuntary movements (IMs) in people who stutter and to investigate the hypothesis that these movements may be of a very similar nature to the IMs seen in patients with movement disorders due to basal ganglia dysfunction.
  
  
  METHODS
  Sixteen adults with developmental stuttering and 16 controls matched for sex and age were audio-videotaped while freely speaking 300 words in conversation and reading aloud 300 words. The audio data was inspected for dysfluencies and the video data was scrutinised for the presence and characteristics of IMs.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Subjects who stuttered produced more IMs than controls during free speech (354 vs 187, p<0.05) and reading (297 vs 47, p<0.001). Most of the IMs in both groups were tics, with a greater number of both simple and complex motor tics (CMTs) in subjects who stuttered. CMTs were more frequent than simple motor tics in those who stuttered, but not in controls. The combination of repetitive eye blink followed by prolonged eye closure was found exclusively in the stuttering group, as were simple tics consisting of eyebrow raise or jaw movement. Dystonia in the form of blepharospasm was identified in a small number of subjects who stuttered. Choreic movements were not associated with stuttering.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Developmental stuttering is associated with the presence of IMs that are predominantly simple and CMTs. This association suggests that tics and stuttering may share a common pathophysiology and supports the view that, in common with tics, stuttering may reflect dysfunction in the basal ganglia or its immediate connections.
authors.affiliation: Christchurch Brain Research Group, Christchurch, New Zealand. hilda.mulligan@chmeds.ac.nz
authors.forename: Hilda F
authors.initials: HF
authors.lastname: Mulligan
authors.forename: Tim J
authors.initials: TJ
authors.lastname: Anderson
authors.forename: Richard D
authors.initials: RD
authors.lastname: Jones
authors.forename: Michelle J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Williams
authors.forename: Ivan M
authors.initials: IM
authors.lastname: Donaldson
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D001479:Basal Ganglia / Q000503:physiopathology*; D002819:Chorea / Q000503:physiopathology; D004421:Dystonia / Q000503:physiopathology; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D011932:Reading; D013060:Speech; D013342:Stuttering / Q000503:physiopathology*; D020323:Tics / Q000503:physiopathology*