title: Monitoring blood glucose changes in cutaneous tissue by temperature-modulated localized reflectance measurements.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Most proposed noninvasive methods for glucose measurements do not consider the physiologic response of the body to changes in glucose concentration. Rather than consider the body as an inert matrix for the purpose of glucose measurement, we exploited the possibility that noninvasive measurements of glucose can be approached by investigating their effects on the skin's thermo-optical response.
  
  
  METHODS
  Glucose concentrations in humans were correlated with temperature-modulated localized reflectance signals at wavelengths between 590 and 935 nm, which do not correspond to any near-infrared glucose absorption wavelengths. Optical signal was collected while skin temperature was modulated between 22 and 38 degrees C over 2 h to generate a periodic set of cutaneous vasoconstricting and vasodilating events, as well as a periodic change in skin light scattering. The method was tested in a series of modified meal tolerance tests involving carbohydrate-rich meals and no-meal or high-protein/no-carbohydrate meals.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The optical data correlated with glucose values. Changes in glucose concentrations resulting from a carbohydrate-rich meal were predicted with a model based on a carbohydrate-meal calibration run. For diabetic individuals, glucose concentrations were predicted with a standard error of prediction <1.5 mmol/L and a prediction correlation coefficient 0.73 in 80% of the cases. There were run-to-run differences in predicted glucose concentrations. Non-carbohydrate meals showed a high degree of scatter when predicted by a carbohydrate meal calibration model.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Blood glucose concentrations alter thermally modulated optical signals, presumably through physiologic and physical effects. Temperature changes drive cutaneous vascular and refractive index responses in a way that mimics the effect of changes in glucose concentration. Run-to-run differences are attributable to site-to-site structural differences.
authors.affiliation: Abbott Laboratories, Diagnostics Division, 100 Abbott Park Rd., Abbott Park, IL 60064, USA.
authors.forename: Shu-Jen
authors.initials: SJ
authors.lastname: Yeh
authors.forename: Charles F
authors.initials: CF
authors.lastname: Hanna
authors.forename: Omar S
authors.initials: OS
authors.lastname: Khalil
mesh_terms: D000465:Algorithms; D001786:Blood Glucose / Q000032:analysis*; D001831:Body Temperature; D002241:Carbohydrates / Q000008:administration & dosage; D003920:Diabetes Mellitus / Q000175:diagnosis; D004044:Dietary Proteins / Q000008:administration & dosage; D005502:Food; D006801:Humans; D008027:Light; D016014:Linear Models; D008297:Male; D008833:Microcirculation; D008875:Middle Aged; D012542:Scattering, Radiation; D012867:Skin / Q000098:blood supply* / Q000737:chemistry; D013053:Spectrophotometry / Q000379:methods
chemical_list: D001786:Blood Glucose; D002241:Carbohydrates; D004044:Dietary Proteins