title: The association of stigma with self-management and perceptions of health care among adults with epilepsy.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The purpose of this study was to examine the perception of stigma among adults with epilepsy including its association with epilepsy self-management and perceptions of health care.
  
  
  METHODS
  Participants for the study were recruited from two epilepsy centers and a neurology clinic. Individuals agreeing to participate in the study were asked to complete three assessments each 3 months apart. Data were collected from 320 adult men and women with epilepsy; 314 provided responses on stigma and were included in this analysis.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Participants ranged in age from 19 to 75 years (mean=43). Fifty percent of the sample was female, and 80% was white. The mean age of seizure onset was 22 years, and 76% of participants reported having had a seizure within the past year. Analysis suggests levels of perceived stigma are similar for men and women and across ethnic and age groups. However, participants who were not married or living with a partner, were not working for pay, and had limited income reported higher levels of stigma than did married participants, those working for pay, and those in higher income brackets. Participants reporting higher levels of stigma included those who had their first seizure before the age of 50 and a seizure in the last year. Participants whose seizures interfered more with activities, who rated their seizures as under less control, and who were not legally able to drive also reported higher levels of stigma. Tests of association between stigma and health-related variables revealed that participants reporting higher levels of perceived stigma also reported lower levels of self-efficacy to manage epilepsy; more negative outcome expectancies related to treatment and seizures; and lower levels of medication management, medication adherence, and patient satisfaction. However, they also reported greater management of information related to seizures. In regression analysis, income, age at first seizure, seizures during the past year, lower self-efficacy, negative outcome expectancies for seizures, and less patient satisfaction explained 54% of the variance in perceived stigma.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The results of the study suggest that perceived stigma is significant for people with epilepsy and is associated with factors that are known to be important in the management of epilepsy. Understanding who is at greatest risk for feeling stigmatized could lead to the development of preventive measures.
authors.affiliation: Department of Behavioral Sciences and Health Education, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, 1520 Clifton Road, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA. cdiiori@sph.emory.edu
authors.forename: Colleen
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: DiIorio
authors.forename: Patricia
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Osborne Shafer
authors.forename: Richard
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Letz
authors.forename: Thomas
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Henry
authors.forename: Donald L
authors.initials: DL
authors.lastname: Schomer
authors.forename: Katherine
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Yeager
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D001294:Attitude to Health; D003710:Demography; D004827:Epilepsy / Q000523:psychology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D010342:Patient Acceptance of Health Care; D012648:Self Care; D020377:Self Efficacy; D013240:Stereotyping