title: HIV infection--a risk factor for osteoporosis.
abstract: Osteopenia and osteoporosis have recently been described as complications of antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected patients. The advent of highly active antiretroviral therapy in conjunction with improved standard antiviral and antibiotic regimens has dramatically changed the clinical course of HIV infection, resulting in prolonged survival. The pathogenesis and role of each individual medication are poorly understood. Avascular necrosis has also been described in AIDS patients receiving or not receiving antiretroviral therapy. This article is a clinically focused review of the literature on osteopenia, osteoporosis, and mineral metabolism related to HIV infection. In patients with HIV infection, the risks of osteopenia and osteoporosis are not very clear. The suggested risk factors for the development of osteopenia are use of protease inhibitors, longer duration of HIV infection, high viral load, high lactate levels, low bicarbonate levels, raised alkaline phosphatase level, and lower body weight before antiretroviral therapy. There have also been a few case reports of pathologic fractures in AIDS patients with antiretroviral therapy-induced osteopenia and osteoporosis. The underlying mechanism triggering bone loss in HIV-infected patients is unknown. The proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-6 have been found to be constitutionally produced in increased amounts in HIV-positive individuals, and they may have a role in osteoclast activation and resorption. Serum markers of bone formation are decreased and resorption is increased in patients with advanced clinical disease. Hypocalcemia, hypercalcemia, and abnormalities of the parathyroid hormone axis have been described in HIV infection. Histomorphometric analyses have shown altered bone remodeling in HIV-infected patients when compared with controls. Patients with known risk factors for osteoporosis-advancing age, low body weight, and prolonged duration of HIV infection-and those receiving protease inhibitor treatment should be considered for dual x-ray absorptiometry imaging. If bone mineral density is osteopenic or osteoporotic, then the patient should also be screened for other known medical causes of osteoporosis and consider treatment with a bisphosphonate or, if hypogonadal, testosterone replacement under close monitoring.
authors.affiliation: Centre for Metabolic Bone Disease, Hull & East Yorkshire Hospitals NHS Trust & Hull University, Kingston upon Hull, United Kingdom. j.thomas@hull.ac.uk
authors.forename: Joegi
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Thomas
authors.forename: Sheelagh M
authors.initials: SM
authors.lastname: Doherty
mesh_terms: D023241:Antiretroviral Therapy, Highly Active / Q000009:adverse effects; D002118:Calcium / Q000378:metabolism; D015658:HIV Infections / Q000150:complications* / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000378:metabolism; D039682:HIV-Associated Lipodystrophy Syndrome / Q000150:complications / Q000378:metabolism; D006801:Humans; D010024:Osteoporosis / Q000150:complications* / Q000378:metabolism; D010281:Parathyroid Hormone / Q000378:metabolism; D014807:Vitamin D / Q000378:metabolism
chemical_list: D010281:Parathyroid Hormone; D014807:Vitamin D; D002118:Calcium