title: Pain in terminally ill patients: guidelines for pharmacological management.
abstract: Successful pharmacological treatment of pain in terminally ill patients is possible most of the time. It requires a determination of the type of pain syndrome (i.e. nociceptive, neuropathic or mixed). Complete pain assessment also requires an understanding of other dimensions of suffering that a patient may be experiencing on psychological, social and spiritual/existential levels. The World Health Organization has introduced a three-step approach to treating pain. Opioids are the mainstay of therapy for moderate to severe pain at the end of life. Familiarity with the pharmacokinetics, equianalgesic dose and adverse effects of opioids is necessary for their safe and effective use. In addition, adjuvant analgesics such as antiepileptic drugs, antidepressants and local anaesthetics are often needed to optimise pain control, especially in patients with neuropathic pain. Given the complex aetiology of pain states, combinations of classes of adjuvants may sometimes be needed for effective treatment.
authors.affiliation: Center for Palliative Studies, San Diego Hospice, San Diego School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, California, USA. jthomas@sdhospice.org
authors.forename: Jay R
authors.initials: JR
authors.lastname: Thomas
authors.forename: Charles F
authors.initials: CF
authors.lastname: von Gunten
mesh_terms: D000316:Adrenergic alpha-Agonists / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000700:Analgesics / Q000494:pharmacology*; D000779:Anesthetics, Local / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000893:Anti-Inflammatory Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000927:Anticonvulsants / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000929:Antidepressive Agents, Tricyclic / Q000627:therapeutic use; D004333:Drug Administration Routes; D004359:Drug Therapy, Combination; D006801:Humans; D009369:Neoplasms / Q000188:drug therapy; D010146:Pain / Q000188:drug therapy*; D010166:Palliative Care / Q000592:standards; D017410:Practice Guidelines as Topic; D016194:Receptors, N-Methyl-D-Aspartate / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors / Q000627:therapeutic use; D019452:Terminally Ill; D013810:Therapeutic Equivalency
chemical_list: D000316:Adrenergic alpha-Agonists; D000700:Analgesics; D000779:Anesthetics, Local; D000893:Anti-Inflammatory Agents; D000927:Anticonvulsants; D000929:Antidepressive Agents, Tricyclic; D016194:Receptors, N-Methyl-D-Aspartate