title: Maternal panic disorder: infant temperament, neurophysiology, and parenting behaviors.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To determine whether 4- and 14-month-old infants of mothers with panic disorder (PD) would be more likely to show differences in temperament, neurophysiology (salivary cortisol and sleep), and relationships with their mothers than controls.
  
  
  METHODS
  Two cohorts were recruited: 4-month-old infants with PD mothers (n = 25) and 4-month-old controls (n = 24), and 14-month-old infants with PD mothers (n = 27) and 14-month-old controls (n = 18). Mothers completed diagnostic interviews and questionnaires concerning infant temperament, sleep, and parenting. Infant salivary cortisol samples and standard observational procedures to measure infant temperament, sleep, attachment, and parenting were also used.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Infants with PD mothers did not show more high reactivity, behavioral inhibition, or ambivalent/resistant attachment but did demonstrate different neurophysiology (higher salivary cortisol and more disturbed sleep) than controls. PD mothers also displayed less sensitivity toward their infants and reported parenting behaviors concerning infant sleep and discipline that have been associated with child problems.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  While infants with PD mothers did not show early behavioral differences from controls, they did display neurophysiological divergences consistent with higher arousal/arousability. Such neurophysiological divergences (elevated salivary cortisol and disturbed sleep) might be important early indicators of risk. Helping PD mothers parent their more highly aroused/arousable infants could reduce the development of psychopathology.
authors.affiliation: George Washington University, Washington, DC 20037, USA.
authors.forename: Susan L
authors.initials: SL
authors.lastname: Warren
authors.forename: Megan R
authors.initials: MR
authors.lastname: Gunnar
authors.forename: Jerome
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Kagan
authors.forename: Thomas F
authors.initials: TF
authors.lastname: Anders
authors.forename: Samuel J
authors.initials: SJ
authors.lastname: Simmens
authors.forename: Michelle
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Rones
authors.forename: Stephen
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Wease
authors.forename: Emily
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Aron
authors.forename: Ronald E
authors.initials: RE
authors.lastname: Dahl
authors.forename: L Alan
authors.initials: LA
authors.lastname: Sroufe
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D015331:Cohort Studies; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D006854:Hydrocortisone / Q000032:analysis*; D007223:Infant; D008297:Male; D008425:Maternal Behavior / Q000523:psychology*; D016584:Panic Disorder / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000523:psychology; D010287:Parent-Child Relations; D016487:Parenting; D002666:Psychology, Child; D012463:Saliva / Q000737:chemistry*; D012893:Sleep Wake Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000523:psychology; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D013694:Temperament; D014743:Videotape Recording
chemical_list: D006854:Hydrocortisone