title: Phantom-limb pain: characteristics, causes, and treatment.
abstract: Phantom-limb pain is a common sequela of amputation, occurring in up to 80% of people who undergo the procedure. It must be differentiated from non-painful phantom phenomena, residual-limb pain, and non-painful residual-limb phenomena. Central changes seem to be a major determinant of phantom-limb pain; however, peripheral and psychological factors may contribute to it. A comprehensive model of phantom-limb pain is presented that assigns major roles to pain occurring before the amputation and to central as well as peripheral changes related to it. So far, few mechanism-based treatments for phantom-limb pain have been proposed. Most published reports are based on anecdotal evidence. Interventions targeting central changes seem promising. The prevention of phantom-limb pain by peripheral analgesia has not yielded consistent results. Additional measures that reverse or prevent the formation of central memory processes might be more effective.
authors.affiliation: Department of Clinical and Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Heidelberg, Central Institute of Mental Health, Mannheim, Germany. flor@zi-mannheim.de
authors.forename: Herta
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Flor
mesh_terms: D006801:Humans; D009473:Neuronal Plasticity / Q000502:physiology; D010149:Postoperative Pain / Q000209:etiology* / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000523:psychology / Q000628:therapy*; D010591:Phantom Limb / Q000209:etiology* / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000523:psychology / Q000628:therapy*