title: Intracrystalline proteins and urolithiasis: a synchrotron X-ray diffraction study of calcium oxalate monohydrate.
abstract: The existence of intracrystalline proteins and amino acids in calcium oxalate monohydrate was demonstrated by X-ray synchrotron diffraction studies. Their presence has implications for the destruction of calcium oxalate crystals formed in the urinary tract and the prevention of kidney stones.
  
  
  BACKGROUND
  Although proteins are present in human kidney stones, their role in stone pathogenesis remains unknown. This investigation aimed to characterize the nature of the relationship between the organic and mineral phases in calcium oxalate monohydrate (COM) crystals grown in human urine and in aqueous solutions of proteins and amino acids to clarify the function of proteins in urolithiasis.
  
  
  METHODS
  COM crystals were grown in human urine and in aqueous solutions containing either human prothrombin (PT), Tamm-Horsfall glycoprotein (THG), aspartic acid (Asp), aspartic acid dimer (AspAsp), glutamic acid (Glu), glutamic acid dimer (GluGlu), or gamma-carboxyglutamic acid (Gla). Controls consisted of COM crystals precipitated from pure inorganic solutions or from human urine that had been ultrafiltered to remove macromolecules. Synchrotron X-ray diffraction with Rietveld whole-pattern peak fitting and profile analysis was used to determine nonuniform crystal strain and crystallite size in polycrystalline samples.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Crystals precipitated from ultrafiltered urine had lower nonuniform strain than those grown in urine or in aqueous PT solution. Nonuniform strain was much lower in crystals grown in distilled water or in the presence of THG. For the amino acids, the highest nonuniform strain was exhibited by crystals grown in Gla solution, followed by Glu. Crystallite size was inversely related to nonuniform strain, with the effect being significantly less for amino acids than for macromolecules.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Selected proteins and amino acids associated with COM crystals are intracrystalline. Although their incorporation into the mineral bulk would be expected to affect the rate of crystal growth, they also have the potential to influence the phagocytosis and intracellular destruction of any crystals nucleated and trapped within the renal collecting system. Crystals impregnated with protein would be more susceptible to digestion by cellular proteases, which would provide access to the crystal core, thereby facilitating further proteolytic degradation and mineral dissolution. We therefore propose that intracrystalline proteins may constitute a natural form of defense against renal stone formation.
authors.affiliation: Department of Applied Chemistry, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Western Australia, Australia.
authors.forename: David E
authors.initials: DE
authors.lastname: Fleming
authors.forename: Arie
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Van Riessen
authors.forename: Magali C
authors.initials: MC
authors.lastname: Chauvet
authors.forename: Phulwinder K
authors.initials: PK
authors.lastname: Grover
authors.forename: Brett
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Hunter
authors.forename: Wilhelm
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: van Bronswijk
authors.forename: Rosemary L
authors.initials: RL
authors.lastname: Ryall
mesh_terms: D015415:Biomarkers / Q000737:chemistry / Q000652:urine; D002129:Calcium Oxalate / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000652:urine*; D003460:Crystallization; D006801:Humans; D008854:Microscopy, Electron; D011507:Proteinuria / Q000652:urine; D017356:Synchrotrons; D014545:Urinary Calculi / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000652:urine*; D014961:X-Ray Diffraction / Q000379:methods*
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D002129:Calcium Oxalate