title: Risk of invasive cancer of the cervix in relation to the use of injectable progestogen contraceptives and combined estrogen/progestogen oral contraceptives (South Africa).
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Cervical cancer is caused by specific types of the human papilloma virus (HPV), but not all infected women develop cancer. It has been hypothesized that hormonal contraceptives may potentiate the oncogenicity of HPV infection.
  
  
  METHODS
  In a case-control study of colored and black women in the Western Cape Province, South Africa, 524 incident cases of clinically evident invasive cervical cancer (stages 1b-1V) were compared with 1541 controls, and with a subgroup of 254 HPV-positive controls.
  
  
  RESULTS
  For injectable progestogen contraceptives (95% of which were depot medroxyprogesterone acetate) the overall relative risk, adjusted for confounding, was 1.0 (95% confidence interval 0.8-1.3); for combined estrogen/progestogen oral contraceptives the corresponding estimate was 0.8 (0.7-1.1). When the data were divided into categories of duration of use extending to > or = 15 years, or according to age, ethnic group, or recency of use, there was no consistent evidence of an increased risk. The findings were unchanged when the cases were compared with the HPV-positive controls.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The present findings suggest that neither injectable progestogen-only nor combined estrogen/ progestogen oral contraceptives increase the risk of clinically evident invasive cancer of the cervix.
authors.affiliation: Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, 600 West 168th Street PH-18-106, New York, NY 10032, USA. ss1832@columbia.edu
authors.forename: Samuel
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Shapiro
authors.forename: Lynn
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Rosenberg
authors.forename: Margaret
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Hoffman
authors.forename: Judith P
authors.initials: JP
authors.lastname: Kelly
authors.forename: Diane D
authors.initials: DD
authors.lastname: Cooper
authors.forename: Henri
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Carrara
authors.forename: Lynnette E
authors.initials: LE
authors.lastname: Denny
authors.forename: George
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: du Toit
authors.forename: Bruce R
authors.initials: BR
authors.lastname: Allan
authors.forename: Ilse A
authors.initials: IA
authors.lastname: Stander
authors.forename: Anna-Lise
authors.initials: AL
authors.lastname: Williamson
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D016022:Case-Control Studies; D003278:Contraceptives, Oral, Hormonal / Q000009:adverse effects*; D004967:Estrogens / Q000009:adverse effects*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007267:Injections; D008875:Middle Aged; D030361:Papillomavirus Infections / Q000150:complications*; D011372:Progestins / Q000009:adverse effects*; D018570:Risk Assessment; D012307:Risk Factors; D013019:South Africa / Q000453:epidemiology; D002583:Uterine Cervical Neoplasms / Q000139:chemically induced / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology* / Q000821:virology
chemical_list: D003278:Contraceptives, Oral, Hormonal; D004967:Estrogens; D011372:Progestins