title: Psychological treatment of patients with chronic toxic encephalopathy: lessons from studies of chronic fatigue and whiplash.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Chronic toxic encephalopathy (CTE), which can result from long-term exposure to organic solvents, is characterized by problems of attention and memory, fatigue and affective symptoms. There is little experience with (neuro)psychological treatment in this patient group. We reviewed treatment outcome studies of CTE and comparable syndromes, namely, chronic whiplash-associated disorder (WAD) and chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), with a view to providing recommendations for the psychological treatment of patients with CTE.
  
  
  METHODS
  PubMed and PsychLIT were systematically searched and reference lists of retrieved articles were studied. The articles were classified according to study design and level of evidence.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The studies of CFS provided high-level evidence for the effectiveness of cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT) in challenging dysfunctional cognitions regarding the effectiveness of rest and in stimulating graded activity. The studies of WAD were methodologically weaker, and most evaluated a combination of CBT and graded activity training. There was some evidence that changing fatigue- or pain-related behaviors may result in cognitive improvement. Two uncontrolled studies of CTE evaluated cognitive rehabilitation techniques but yielded inconsistent findings.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  CBT techniques focusing on changing illness attributions and on stimulating graded activity might be useful for patients with CTE, diminishing fatigue-related problems of concentration and memory. Future studies should evaluate whether cognitive deficits of CTE patients as a result of neurotoxic effects of exposure should be treated by cognitive rehabilitation.
authors.affiliation: Medical Spectrum Twente Hospital, Enschede, The Netherlands. MSEvanHout@ziekenhuis-mst.nl
authors.forename: Moniek S E
authors.initials: MS
authors.lastname: van Hout
authors.forename: Ellie M
authors.initials: EM
authors.lastname: Wekking
authors.forename: Ina J
authors.initials: IJ
authors.lastname: Berg
authors.forename: Betto G
authors.initials: BG
authors.lastname: Deelman
mesh_terms: D002908:Chronic Disease; D015928:Cognitive Behavioral Therapy / Q000379:methods*; D019317:Evidence-Based Medicine; D015673:Fatigue Syndrome, Chronic / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000209:etiology / Q000628:therapy*; D020258:Neurotoxicity Syndromes / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000209:etiology / Q000628:therapy*; D016032:Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic; D012720:Severity of Illness Index; D014911:Whiplash Injuries / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000209:etiology / Q000628:therapy*