title: Ultrastructural study and ontogenesis of the appendages and related musculature of Paraspadella (Chaetognatha).
abstract: A lineage of benthic chaetognaths has developed limb-like appendages on the caudal part of the body, resulting from a local modification of the lateral fins, which are folds of the epidermis and have a role in balance when swimming. The most complex are those of Paraspadella gotoi which are used as props with the tip of the tail, allowing an elaborated mating behaviour comprising different movements: complete erection of the body, swings and jumps, astonishing for so simple-bodied animals. In the tail, the epidermis and the connective tissue, together with the longitudinal musculature, are involved in this innovation. All the components of the fins, i.e. connective tissue, fin rays and multilayered epidermic cells are conserved, but their function has changed. The movements of appendages are adjusted by one pair of small appendicular muscles localised in the body wall, while posture movements of the body are allowed by four longitudinal bundles of raising muscle. These two new muscles have successively appeared in the evolutive series previously described in Paraspadella. They have definitely arisen from the secondary muscle: the two lateral bundles for the former, and the two dorsal and two ventral ones for the latter. All are supercontracting muscles, a muscle kind also observed in the other benthic genus Spadella, but unknown in planktonic and benthoplanktonic chaetognaths.
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001696:Biomechanical Phenomena; D007448:Invertebrates / Q000254:growth & development* / Q000648:ultrastructure; D008854:Microscopy, Electron; D008855:Microscopy, Electron, Scanning; D008954:Models, Biological; D009068:Movement / Q000502:physiology; D009132:Muscles / Q000502:physiology / Q000648:ultrastructure*; D010802:Phylogeny; D013550:Swimming