title: Laparoscopic port-site metastases: etiology and prevention.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The purpose of this article is to summarize current hypotheses for the possible sources of laparoscopic port-site metastasis, to review the results of experimental models that support such hypotheses, and to discuss the potential options for preventing these metastases.
  
  
  METHODS
  We performed a Medline search to identify in vitro and in vivo studies and clinical trials that analyzed port-site metastases associated with laparoscopic surgery. We report the incidence of port-site metastases and causative factors associated with this condition.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The estimated incidence of port-site metastases in all patients undergoing laparoscopic surgery for malignant disease is approximately 1-2%. Multiple factors are associated with this complication. Among the most common proposed etiologies are the wound implantations caused by the surgical technique and instrumentation; the leakage of insufflation gas through the ports, known as the "chimney effect"; and the impact of pneumoperitoneum on local immune reactions. Several preventive measures, have been suggested, including careful patient selection, lavage of the peritoneal cavity as well as of the port wounds with cytotoxic agents, and modifications of surgical technique.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Only through the results of well-conducted large multi-institutional prospective randomized trials will we learn not only the true incidence of port-site metastases, but also the potential factors that lead to the occurrence of this complication.
authors.affiliation: Department of Gynecologic Oncology, Unit 440, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd., Houston, TX 77030, USA. peramire@mdanderson.org
authors.forename: Pedro T
authors.initials: PT
authors.lastname: Ramirez
authors.forename: Judith K
authors.initials: JK
authors.lastname: Wolf
authors.forename: Charles
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Levenback
mesh_terms: D002986:Clinical Trials as Topic; D006801:Humans; D010535:Laparoscopy / Q000009:adverse effects*; D009366:Neoplasm Seeding; D009369:Neoplasms / Q000209:etiology* / Q000473:pathology / Q000517:prevention & control*