title: Exposure to water from the lower Rhine induces a stress response in the rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss.
abstract: The water quality of the river Rhine has improved in recent years and populations of salmonids are increasing. Nevertheless at present, the water from the lower Rhine still contains a complex mixture of low levels of many pollutants and it is not known whether exposure to such water is stressful to salmonid fish. For 31 days we continuously exposed the trout Oncorhynchus mykiss to water from the lower Rhine in the Netherlands and measured a variety of physiological, biochemical, and histological parameters, including the stress parameters cortisol and glucose. Exposure to Rhine water significantly increased cortisol and glucose after 3 h. At 21 and 31 days, cortisol was lower in exposed fish, indicating inhibition or exhaustion of the hypothalamic-pituitary-interrenal (HPI) axis. Electron microscopical analysis of the skin and gill epithelia revealed stressor-related effects that reflected disruption of the skin epithelium, the interface between the fish and the environment. This had little influence on hydromineral balance, as neither gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity nor plasma Na+ and Cl- were altered, although intestine- and kidney-specific Na+/K+-ATPase activities were affected. Analysis of heavy metal concentrations in the liver, kidney, and intestine indicated no bioaccumulation. Immunostimulation was reflected by increased respiratory burst activity of the head kidney leukocytes. From 7 days onwards, the body weight of the Rhine water fish was significantly lower than that of control fish. Overall, the data show that acute exposure to present day water from the lower Rhine induced a stress response in the fish that, during chronic exposure, was followed by impairment of the HPI axis, reduced growth, and prolonged immunostimulation.
authors.affiliation: Department of Animal Ecology and Ecophysiology, Faculty of Science, University of Nijmegen, Toernooiveld 1, 6525 ED Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: D T
authors.initials: DT
authors.lastname: Nolan
authors.forename: F A T
authors.initials: FA
authors.lastname: Spanings
authors.forename: N M
authors.initials: NM
authors.lastname: Ruane
authors.forename: R H
authors.initials: RH
authors.lastname: Hadderingh
authors.forename: H A
authors.initials: HA
authors.lastname: Jenner
authors.forename: S E
authors.initials: SE
authors.lastname: Wendelaar Bonga
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001835:Body Weight; D004781:Environmental Exposure; D005858:Germany; D005880:Gills / Q000648:ultrastructure; D005947:Glucose / Q000378:metabolism; D006854:Hydrocortisone / Q000032:analysis; D007030:Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology; D008854:Microscopy, Electron; D017686:Oncorhynchus mykiss / Q000502:physiology*; D010913:Pituitary-Adrenal System / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology; D014873:Water Pollutants / Q000506:poisoning*
chemical_list: D014873:Water Pollutants; D005947:Glucose; D006854:Hydrocortisone