title: An assessment of the genotoxicity and human health risk of topical use of kojic acid [5-hydroxy-2-(hydroxymethyl)-4H-pyran-4-one].
abstract: Kojic acid (KA), a natural substance produced by fungi or bacteria, such as Aspergillus, Penicillium or Acetobacter spp, is contained in traditional Japanese fermented foods and is used as a dermatological skin-lightening agent. High concentrations of KA (>or=1000 microg/plate) were mutagenic in S. typhimurium strains TA 98, TA 100, TA 1535, TA102 and E. coli WP2uvrA, but not in TA 1537. An Ames test following the "treat and plate" protocol was negative. A chromosome aberration test in V79 cells following a robust protocol showed only a marginal increase in chromosome aberrations at cytotoxic concentrations after prolonged (>or=18 h) exposure. No genotoxic activity was observed for hprt mutations either in mouse lymphoma or V79 cells, or in in vitro micronucleus tests in human keratinocytes or hepatocytes. All in vivo genotoxicity studies on KA doses were negative, including mouse bone marrow micronucleus tests after single or multiple doses, an in vivo/in vitro unscheduled DNA synthesis (UDS) test, or a study in the liver of the transgenic Muta(TM) Mouse. On the basis of pharmacokinetic studies in rats and in vitro absorption studies in human skin, the systemic exposure of KA in man following its topical application is estimated to be in the range of 0.03-0.06 mg/kg/day. Comparing these values with the NOAEL in oral subchronic animal studies (250 mg/kg/day), the calculated margin of safety would be 4200- to 8900-fold. Comparing human exposure with the doses that were negative for micronuclei, UDS and gene mutations in vivo, the margins of safety are 16000 to 26000-fold. In conclusion, the topical use of KA as a skin lightening agent results in minimal exposure that poses no or negligible risk of genotoxicity or toxicity to the consumer.
authors: L'Oreal Recherche, Corporate Safety, 25-29, quai Aulagnier, 92600 Asnières, France. gnohynec@recherche.loreal.com
authors: Gerhard J
authors: GJ
authors: Nohynek
authors: David
authors: D
authors: Kirkland
authors: Daniel
authors: D
authors: Marzin
authors: Herve
authors: H
authors: Toutain
authors: Christele
authors: C
authors: Leclerc-Ribaud
authors: Hiroyuki
authors: H
authors: Jinnai
mesh_terms: D000287:Administration, Topical; D000818:Animals; D000975:Antioxidants / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000493:pharmacokinetics / Q000633:toxicity*; D001419:Bacteria / Q000235:genetics; D001854:Bone Marrow Cells / Q000187:drug effects; D002869:Chromosome Aberrations / Q000139:chemically induced; D004247:DNA / Q000096:biosynthesis / Q000235:genetics; D004260:DNA Repair / Q000187:drug effects; D022781:Hepatocytes / Q000187:drug effects; D006801:Humans; D015603:Keratinocytes / Q000187:drug effects; D007763:Lac Operon / Q000235:genetics; D008297:Male; D051379:Mice; D015162:Micronucleus Tests; D009152:Mutagenicity Tests; D009153:Mutagens; D011753:Pyrones / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000493:pharmacokinetics / Q000633:toxicity*; D051381:Rats; D017208:Rats, Wistar; D018570:Risk Assessment; D012869:Skin Absorption
chemical_list: D000975:Antioxidants; D009153:Mutagens; D011753:Pyrones; C011890:kojic acid; D004247:DNA