title: How clean is clean enough? Recent developments in response to threats posed by chemical and biological warfare agents.
abstract: Recent terrorist events underscore the urgent need to develop a comprehensive set of health-protective cleanup standards and effective decontamination technologies for use in the restoration of civilian facilities. Accurate scientific information remains limited in the area of biological warfare agents. However, new guidelines and calculated cleanup values are emerging for initial re-entry and long-term reoccupation following use of chemical warfare agents. This article addresses airborne, soil, and surface exposures following release of G-type chemical warfare agents and VX. Cleanup goals should be tailored to the type of population that may be exposed, potential exposure times, and other scenario-specific considerations. Three different airborne concentrations are proposed for cleanup of public sector facilities. One value is recommended for initial re-entry; a more conservative value is recommended for long-term monitoring and increased public confidence; and a third, even more conservative concentration represents essentially a no-effect level for round-the-clock airborne exposure. Health-based cleanup levels are provided for contaminated residential and industrial soil. Results are presented on the outcome of a preliminary risk assessment to determine safe surface levels (e.g., walls, floors, and handrails) for cleanup after exposure to the G agents and VX. Because specific cleanup criteria for most biological warfare agents remain problematic, recommendations are made for filling the knowledge gaps.
authors.affiliation: Environmental Protection Department, Energy and Environment Directorate, University of California, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, USA. raber1@llnl.gov
authors.forename: Ellen
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Raber
authors.forename: Tina
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Carlsen
authors.forename: Karen
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Folks
authors.forename: Robert
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Kirvel
authors.forename: Jeffrey
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Daniels
authors.forename: Kenneth
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Bogen
mesh_terms: D002619:Chemical Warfare Agents / Q000506:poisoning*; D003666:Decontamination / Q000379:methods* / Q000592:standards*; D004781:Environmental Exposure; D017408:Guidelines as Topic; D006801:Humans; D009946:Organothiophosphorus Compounds / Q000506:poisoning*; D011634:Public Health; D012016:Reference Values; D018570:Risk Assessment; D012449:Safety; D023481:Terrorism
chemical_list: D002619:Chemical Warfare Agents; D009946:Organothiophosphorus Compounds; C009680:VX-agent