title: Toxicity of lithium to three freshwater organisms and the antagonistic effect of sodium.
abstract: Lithium (Li) is the lightest metal and occurs primarily in stable minerals and salts. Concentrations of Li in surface water are typically <0.04 mg l(-1) but can be elevated in contaminated streams. Because of the general lack of information concerning the toxicity of Li to common toxicity test organisms, we evaluated the toxicity of Li to Pimephales promelas (fathead minnow), Ceriodaphnia dubia, and a freshwater snail (Elimia clavaeformis). In the laboratory, the concentration of Li that inhibited P. promelas growth or C. dubia reproduction by 25% (IC25) was dependant upon the dilution water. In laboratory control water containing little sodium (approximately 2.8 mg l(-1)), the IC25s were 0.38 and 0.32 mg Li l(-1) and in ambient stream water containing approximately 17 mg Na l(-1), the IC25s were 1.99 and 3.33, respectively. A Li concentration of 0.15 mg l(-1) inhibited the feeding of E. clavaeformis in laboratory tests. Toxicity tests conducted to evaluate the effect of sodium on the toxicity of Li were conducted with fathead minnows and C. dubia. The presence of sodium greatly affected the toxicity of Li. Fathead minnows and Ceriodaphnia, for example, tolerated concentrations of Li as great as 6 mg l(-1) when sufficient Na was present. The interaction of Li and Na on the reproduction of Ceriodaphnia was investigated in depth and can be described using an exponential model. The model predicts that C. dubia reproduction would not be affected when animals are exposed to combinations of lithium and sodium with a log ratio of mmol Na to mmol Li equal to at least 1.63. The results of this study indicate that for most natural waters, the presence of sodium is sufficient to prevent Li toxicity. However, in areas of historical disposal or heavy processing or use, an evaluation of Li from a water quality perspective would be warranted.
authors.affiliation: Environmental Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, PO Box 2008, Bethel Valley Road, Oak Ridge, TN 37831-6422, USA. kszosla@ornl.gov
authors.forename: Lynn Adams
authors.initials: LA
authors.lastname: Kszos
authors.forename: John J
authors.initials: JJ
authors.lastname: Beauchamp
authors.forename: Arthur J
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Stewart
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D003530:Cyprinidae; D004784:Environmental Monitoring / Q000379:methods; D005618:Fresh Water; D007814:Larva; D008094:Lithium / Q000633:toxicity*; D008962:Models, Theoretical; D012908:Snails; D012964:Sodium / Q000633:toxicity*; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000633:toxicity*
chemical_list: D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical; D008094:Lithium; D012964:Sodium