title: Levels-of-processing effect on word recognition in schizophrenia.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Individuals with schizophrenia have difficulty organizing words semantically to facilitate encoding. This is commonly attributed to organizational rather than semantic processing limitations. By requiring participants to classify and encode words on either a shallow (e.g., uppercase/lowercase) or deep level (e.g., concrete/abstract), the levels-of-processing paradigm eliminates the need to generate organizational strategies.
  
  
  METHODS
  This paradigm was administered to 30 patients with schizophrenia and 30 healthy comparison subjects to test whether providing a strategy would improve patient performance.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Word classification during shallow and deep encoding was slower and less accurate in patients. Patients also responded slowly during recognition testing and maintained a more conservative response bias following deep encoding; however, both groups showed a robust levels-of-processing effect on recognition accuracy, with unimpaired patient performance following both shallow and deep encoding.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This normal levels-of-processing effect in the patient sample suggests that semantic processing is sufficiently intact for patients to benefit from organizational cues. Memory remediation efforts may therefore be most successful if they focus on teaching patients to form organizational strategies during initial encoding.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA.
authors.forename: J Daniel
authors.initials: JD
authors.lastname: Ragland
authors.forename: Stephen T
authors.initials: ST
authors.lastname: Moelter
authors.forename: Claire
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: McGrath
authors.forename: S Kristian
authors.initials: SK
authors.lastname: Hill
authors.forename: Raquel E
authors.initials: RE
authors.lastname: Gur
authors.forename: Warren B
authors.initials: WB
authors.lastname: Bilker
authors.forename: Steven J
authors.initials: SJ
authors.lastname: Siegel
authors.forename: Ruben C
authors.initials: RC
authors.lastname: Gur
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001921:Brain / Q000503:physiopathology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008606:Mental Processes / Q000502:physiology; D009483:Neuropsychological Tests; D021641:Recognition, Psychology / Q000502:physiology*; D012559:Schizophrenia / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000503:physiopathology*; D012565:Schizophrenic Psychology; D012660:Semantics