title: Pacemaker and defibrillator lead extraction.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Continued growth in the elderly population and expanding indications have resulted in a progressive increase in the number of implants of pacemakers and defibrillators. Concomitant with these expanding numbers, more leads require removal, due especially to mechanical dysfunction, the need to upgrade to more complex devices, or local or systemic infection. Further, leads have become more complex, particularly for defibrillator systems, resulting in the development of powered extraction sheaths to expedite their removal. For these reasons, it is important to understand the expanding indications, procedural aspects, and limitations of arrhythmia device extraction.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Expanded indications for lead extraction include upgrade to more complex systems, particularly pacemaker to defibrillator or biventricular device, extraction through occluded vasculature to produce a conduit for reimplantation, more frequent removal due to vascular overload with multiple leads, and a finite frequency of infection, occurring particularly with device replacement or revision. Powered sheaths now include laser and electrocautery systems, both improving the ease of lead explantation.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Complication rates remain low but constant with extraction of larger numbers of leads using new technologies. Expansion of the use of biventricular systems, with implantation of coronary sinus electrodes, will continue to challenge lead extraction in terms of technology and safety. Design of leads that are easier to remove remains of paramount importance.
authors.affiliation: Cardiac Electrophysiology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Hahnemann University Hospital, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19102, USA. SPKutalk@drexel.edu
authors.forename: Steven P
authors.initials: SP
authors.lastname: Kutalek
mesh_terms: D001145:Arrhythmias, Cardiac / Q000628:therapy*; D017147:Defibrillators, Implantable; D020878:Device Removal / Q000009:adverse effects*; D004567:Electrodes, Implanted; D006801:Humans; D010138:Pacemaker, Artificial; D014652:Vascular Diseases / Q000209:etiology* / Q000503:physiopathology; D014680:Veins