title: Mechanical response of bovine articular cartilage under dynamic unconfined compression loading at physiological stress levels.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The objective of this study was to characterize the dynamic modulus and compressive strain magnitudes of bovine articular cartilage at physiological compressive stress levels and loading frequencies.
  
  
  METHODS
  Twelve distal femoral cartilage plugs (3mm in diameter) were loaded in a custom apparatus under load control, with a load amplitude up to 40 N and loading frequencies of 0.1, 1, 10 and 40 Hz, resulting in peak Cauchy stress amplitudes of 4.8 MPa (engineering stress 5.7 MPa).
  
  
  RESULTS
  The equilibrium Young's modulus under a tare load of 0.4N was 0.49+/-0.10 MPa. In the limit of zero applied stress, the incremental dynamic modulus derived from the slope of the stress-strain curve increased from 14.6+/-6.9 MPa at 0.1 Hz to 28.7+/-7.8 MPa at 40 Hz. At 4 MPa of applied stress, the corresponding increase was from 48.2+/-13.5 MPa at 0.1 Hz to 64.8+/-13.0 MPa at 40 Hz. Peak compressive strain amplitudes varied from 15.8+/-3.4% at 0.1 Hz to 8.7+/-1.8% at 40 Hz. The phase angle decreased from 28.8 degrees +/-6.7 degrees at 0.1 Hz to-0.5 degrees +/-3.8 degrees at 40 Hz.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These results are representative of the functional properties of articular cartilage under physiological load magnitudes and frequencies. The viscoelasticity and nonlinearity of the tissue helps to maintain the compressive strains below 20% under the physiological compressive stresses achieved in this study. These findings have implications for our understanding of cartilage metabolism and chondrocyte viability under various loading regimes. They also help establish guidelines for cartilage functional tissue engineering studies.
authors.affiliation: Columbia University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, New York, NY 10027, USA.
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Park
authors.forename: C T
authors.initials: CT
authors.lastname: Hung
authors.forename: G A
authors.initials: GA
authors.lastname: Ateshian
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001696:Biomechanical Phenomena; D002358:Cartilage, Articular / Q000502:physiology*; D002417:Cattle; D006614:Hindlimb; D013314:Stress, Mechanical; D013997:Time Factors