title: Effects of beta-adrenoceptor blockade on components of human decision-making.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Converging evidence from studies with neurological patients and brain imaging studies with healthy volunteers suggests that the capacity to make choices between actions associated with probabilistic rewards and punishments depends upon a network of cortico-limbic systems including the orbitofrontal cortex, cingulate cortex, amygdala and striatum. The involvement of such structures highlights the emotional aspects of decision-making and suggests that decision-making may be sensitive to manipulations of the catecholamine systems that innervate these structures. In this study, we investigated the possible role of noradrenaline (NA).
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  We examined the effects of a single oral 80 mg dose of the beta-adrenoceptor blocker, propranolol, on the decision-making of healthy volunteers in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, between-subjects design.
  
  
  METHODS
  Seventeen volunteers ingested a placebo while 15 volunteers ingested propranolol. Visual analogue scales, and self-reported positive and negative ratings, were used to assess subjective changes and mood. Vital signs were also monitored. Seventy-five minutes after treatment, volunteers were asked to make a series of choices between two simultaneously presented gambles, differing in the magnitude of possible gains (i.e. reward), the magnitude of possible losses (i.e. punishment), and the probabilities with which these outcomes were delivered. Volunteers also chose between gambles probing identified non-cognitive biases in human decision-making, namely, risk-aversion when choosing between gains and risk-seeking when choosing between losses.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Propranolol treatment did not result in gross changes in subjective state or mood in comparison to placebo, but did slow heart rate significantly. Propranolol produced a selective change in volunteers' decision-making; namely, it significantly reduced the discrimination between large and small possible losses when the probability of winning was relatively low and the probability of losing was high.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These results suggest that NA modulates the processing of punishment signals when choosing between probabilistic rewards and punishments under conditions of increased arousal.
authors.affiliation: University Department of Psychiatry, Warneford Hospital, Oxford, OX3 7JX, United Kingdom. robert.rogers@psych.ox.ac.uk
authors.forename: R D
authors.initials: RD
authors.lastname: Rogers
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Lancaster
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Wakeley
authors.forename: Z
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Bhagwagar
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000319:Adrenergic beta-Antagonists / Q000494:pharmacology*; D000328:Adult; D000704:Analysis of Variance; D016009:Chi-Square Distribution; D003657:Decision Making / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000502:physiology; D004311:Double-Blind Method; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D011943:Receptors, Adrenergic, beta / Q000502:physiology*
chemical_list: D000319:Adrenergic beta-Antagonists; D011943:Receptors, Adrenergic, beta