title: Investigation of photosensitizing dyes for pathogen reduction in red cell suspensions.
abstract: Despite recent advances in blood safety by careful donor selection and implementation of infectious disease testing, transmission of viruses, bacteria and parasites by transfusion can still rarely occur. One approach to reduce the residual risk from currently tested pathogens and to protect against the emergence of new ones is to investigate methods for pathogen inactivation. The use of photosensitizing dyes for pathogen inactivation has been studied in both red cell and platelet blood components. Optimal properties of sensitizing dyes for use in red cell suspensions include selection of dyes that traverse cell and viral membranes, bind to nucleic acids, absorb light in the red region of the spectrum, inactivate a wide range of pathogens, produce little red cell photodamage from dye not bound to nucleic acid and do not hemolyze red cells in the dark. Early research at the American Red Cross focused on the use of a class of dyes with rigid structures, such as the phenothiazine dyes, beginning with the prototypical sensitizer methylene blue. Results revealed that methylene blue phototreatment could inactivate extracellular virus, but resulted in undesirable defects in the red cell membrane that resulted in enhanced hemolysis that became evident during extended refrigerated blood storage. In addition, methylene blue phototreatment could neither inactivate intracellular viruses nor appreciably inactivate bacteria under conditions of extracellualar viral killing. Attempts to improve intracellular viral inactivation led to the investigations of more hydrophobic phenothiazines, such as methylene violet or dimethylmethylene blue. Although these dyes could inactivate intracellular virus, problems with increased red cell membrane damage and hemolysis persisted or increased. Further studies using red cell additive storage solutions containing high levels of the impermeable ion, citrate, to protect against colloidal osmotic hemolysis as well as competitive inhibitors to limit sensitizer binding to red cell membranes revealed that photoinduced hemolysis stemmed from dye bound to the red cell membrane as well as dye free in solution. Use of red cell additive solutions to prevent colloidal-osmotic hemolysis and use of novel flexible dyes that only act as sensitizers when bound to their targets are two techniques that currently are under investigation for reducing red cell damage. Ultimately, the decision to implement a photodynamic method for pathogen reduction will be determined by weighing the risks of unintended adverse consequences of the procedure itself, such as the potential for genotoxicity and allergic reactions, against the cost and benefits of its implementation.
authors.affiliation: American Red Cross, Biomedical Research and Development, Blood & Cell Therapy Development, Rockville, MD 20855, USA. wagners@usa.redcross.org
authors.forename: S J
authors.initials: SJ
authors.lastname: Wagner
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Skripchenko
mesh_terms: D004396:Coloring Agents / Q000737:chemistry / Q000494:pharmacology*; D004912:Erythrocytes / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000528:radiation effects / Q000821:virology*; D006461:Hemolysis / Q000187:drug effects / Q000528:radiation effects; D006801:Humans; D010640:Phenothiazines / Q000737:chemistry / Q000494:pharmacology; D017319:Photosensitizing Agents / Q000737:chemistry / Q000494:pharmacology*
chemical_list: D004396:Coloring Agents; D010640:Phenothiazines; D017319:Photosensitizing Agents; C031637:phenothiazine