title: Differential risks to males and females for congenital malformations among 2.5 million California births, 1989-1997.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Although many studies have observed variations in the prevalence of specific malformations by sex, there is a lack of population-based data on potential malformation prevalence differences by sex at birth.
  
  
  METHODS
  Our objective was to explore differences in the prevalence of structural congenital malformation phenotypes between sexes in a California population of 2.5 million live- and stillbirths, using data from a population-based active surveillance system. Ascertainment was performed among offspring of California women who delivered in nonmilitary hospitals during the period of 1989-1997. Malformations were grouped according to the four-digit malformation codes of the British Pediatric Association.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Overall, 32,619 males and 21,835 females were considered to have structural congenital malformations, with prevalences of 2.52% and 1.76%, respectively. Thus, males demonstrated a malformation prevalence that was 22% higher than that in females. Using a criterion of a 40% increase or decrease in the relative risk for males, increased risks for 15 and decreased risks for 17 specific malformation categories were observed. Increased risks were associated with most organ systems, with the notable exception of the nervous system (increased risks for nervous system malformations were observed among female births). Risks were not substantially influenced by adjusting for maternal age, race/ethnicity, parity, or education.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our observations extend the relatively few studies that have investigated differential prevalences of a large number of specific structural malformations between male and female births.
authors.affiliation: March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation, California Birth Defects Monitoring Program, Berkeley, California 94710, USA. gsh@cbdmp.org
authors.forename: Gary M
authors.initials: GM
authors.lastname: Shaw
authors.forename: Suzan L
authors.initials: SL
authors.lastname: Carmichael
authors.forename: Zhanna
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Kaidarova
authors.forename: John A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Harris
mesh_terms: D002140:California / Q000453:epidemiology; D000013:Congenital Abnormalities / Q000453:epidemiology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D008297:Male; D015995:Prevalence; D012307:Risk Factors; D012737:Sex Factors