title: Selectable marker genes in transgenic plants: applications, alternatives and biosafety.
abstract: Approximately fifty marker genes used for transgenic and transplastomic plant research or crop development have been assessed for efficiency, biosafety, scientific applications and commercialization. Selectable marker genes can be divided into several categories depending on whether they confer positive or negative selection and whether selection is conditional or non-conditional on the presence of external substrates. Positive selectable marker genes are defined as those that promote the growth of transformed tissue whereas negative selectable marker genes result in the death of the transformed tissue. The positive selectable marker genes that are conditional on the use of toxic agents, such as antibiotics, herbicides or drugs were the first to be developed and exploited. More recent developments include positive selectable marker genes that are conditional on non-toxic agents that may be substrates for growth or that induce growth and differentiation of the transformed tissues. Newer strategies include positive selectable marker genes which are not conditional on external substrates but which alter the physiological processes that govern plant development. A valuable companion to the selectable marker genes are the reporter genes, which do not provide a cell with a selective advantage, but which can be used to monitor transgenic events and manually separate transgenic material from non-transformed material. They fall into two categories depending on whether they are conditional or non-conditional on the presence of external substrates. Some reporter genes can be adapted to function as selectable marker genes through the development of novel substrates. Despite the large number of marker genes that exist for plants, only a few marker genes are used for most plant research and crop development. As the production of transgenic plants is labor intensive, expensive and difficult for most species, practical issues govern the choice of selectable marker genes that are used. Many of the genes have specific limitations or have not been sufficiently tested to merit their widespread use. For research, a variety of selection systems are essential as no single selectable marker gene was found to be sufficient for all circumstances. Although, no adverse biosafety effects have been reported for the marker genes that have been adopted for widespread use, biosafety concerns should help direct which markers will be chosen for future crop development. Common sense dictates that marker genes conferring resistance to significant therapeutic antibiotics should not be used. An area of research that is growing rapidly but is still in its infancy is the development of strategies for eliminating selectable marker genes to generate marker-free plants. Among the several technologies described, two have emerged with significant potential. The simplest is the co-transformation of genes of interest with selectable marker genes followed by the segregation of the separate genes through conventional genetics. The more complicated strategy is the use of site-specific recombinases, under the control of inducible promoters, to excise the marker genes and excision machinery from the transgenic plant after selection has been achieved. In this review each of the genes and processes will be examined to assess the alternatives that exist for producing transgenic plants.
authors.affiliation: Research Branch, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Room 2091, KW Neatby Bldg., CEF, 960 Carling Avenue, Ottawa, Ont., Canada K1A 0C6. mikib@agr.gc.ca
authors.forename: Brian
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Miki
authors.forename: Sylvia
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: McHugh
mesh_terms: D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents; D000970:Antineoplastic Agents; D000998:Antiviral Agents; D018506:Gene Expression Regulation, Plant; D005819:Genetic Markers; D006540:Herbicides; D030821:Plants, Genetically Modified; D010957:Plasmids; D012641:Selection, Genetic
chemical_list: D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents; D000970:Antineoplastic Agents; D000998:Antiviral Agents; D005819:Genetic Markers; D006540:Herbicides