title: Diabetic neuropathy: an intensive review.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The epidemiology, classification, pathology, and treatment of diabetic neuropathy are reviewed.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Diabetic peripheral neuropathy is a common complication of diabetes that can cause significant morbidity and mortality. Some 30% of hospitalized and 20% of community-dwelling diabetes patients have peripheral neuropathy; the annual incidence rate is approximately 2%. The primary risk factor is hyperglycemia. Sensorimotor neuropathy is marked by pain, paresthesia, and sensory loss. Cardiac autonomic neuropathy (CAN) may contribute to myocardial infarction, malignant arrhythmia, and sudden death. Gastroparesis is the most debilitating complication of gastrointestinal autonomic neuropathy. Genitourinary autonomic neuropathy can cause sexual dysfunction and neurogenic bladder. The pathology of diabetic neuropathy involves oxidative stress, advanced glycation end products, polyol pathway flux, and protein kinase C activation; all contribute to microvascular disease and nerve dysfunction. For symptom management current evidence from clinical trials supports the use of desipramine, amitriptyline, capsaicin, tramadol, gabapentin, bupropion, and venlafaxine as preferred medications. Citalopram, nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs, and opioid analgesics may be used as adjuvant agents. Lamotrigine, oxcarbazepine, paroxetine, levodopa, and alpha-lipoic acid are alternative considerations. Evidence supporting the use of zonisamide, fluoxetine, mexiletine, dextromethorphan, and phenytoin is considered equivocal. Complementary therapies have also shown efficacy. The symptoms of CAN may be ameliorated with fludrocortisone, clonidine, midodrine, dihydroergotamine or caffeine, octreotide, and beta-blockers. Gastroparesis may be treated with metoclopramide or erythromycin. The most promising disease-modifying therapy is ruboxistaurin, which is in Phase III trials. Glycemic control remains the foundation of prevention and the prerequisite of adequate treatment.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Diabetic neuropathy is a many-faceted complication of diabetes that can be managed symptomatically with an array of drugs.
authors.affiliation: University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.
authors.forename: Jeremiah John
authors.initials: JJ
authors.lastname: Duby
authors.forename: R Keith
authors.initials: RK
authors.lastname: Campbell
authors.forename: Stephen M
authors.initials: SM
authors.lastname: Setter
authors.forename: John Raymond
authors.initials: JR
authors.lastname: White
authors.forename: Kristin A
authors.initials: KA
authors.lastname: Rasmussen
mesh_terms: D000701:Analgesics, Opioid / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D000894:Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D002986:Clinical Trials as Topic; D003929:Diabetic Neuropathies / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000503:physiopathology; D004791:Enzyme Inhibitors / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D005260:Female; D018589:Gastroparesis / Q000209:etiology / Q000503:physiopathology; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D018384:Oxidative Stress; D015995:Prevalence
chemical_list: D000701:Analgesics, Opioid; D000894:Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal; D004791:Enzyme Inhibitors