title: Brain damage and addictive behavior: a neuropsychological and electroencephalogram investigation with pathologic gamblers.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Gambling is a form of nonsubstance addiction classified as an impulse control disorder. Pathologic gamblers are considered healthy with respect to their cognitive status. Lesions of the frontolimbic systems, mostly of the right hemisphere, are associated with addictive behavior. Because gamblers are not regarded as "brain-lesioned" and gambling is nontoxic, gambling is a model to test whether addicted "healthy" people are relatively impaired in frontolimbic neuropsychological functions.
  
  
  METHODS
  Twenty-one nonsubstance dependent gamblers and nineteen healthy subjects underwent a behavioral neurologic interview centered on incidence, origin, and symptoms of possible brain damage, a neuropsychological examination, and an electroencephalogram.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Seventeen gamblers (81%) had a positive medical history for brain damage (mainly traumatic head injury, pre- or perinatal complications). The gamblers, compared with the controls, were significantly more impaired in concentration, memory, and executive functions, and evidenced a higher prevalence of non-right-handedness (43%) and, non-left-hemisphere language dominance (52%). Electroencephalogram (EEG) revealed dysfunctional activity in 65% of the gamblers, compared with 26% of controls.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This study shows that the "healthy" gamblers are indeed brain-damaged. Compared with a matched control population, pathologic gamblers evidenced more brain injuries, more fronto-temporo-limbic neuropsychological dysfunctions and more EEG abnormalities. The authors thus conjecture that addictive gambling may be a consequence of brain damage, especially of the frontolimbic systems, a finding that may well have medicolegal consequences.
authors.affiliation: Department of Neurology, University Hospital, Zürich, Switzerland. mregard@npsy.unizh.ch
authors.forename: Marianne
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Regard
authors.forename: Daria
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Knoch
authors.forename: Eva
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Gütling
authors.forename: Theodor
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Landis
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D001288:Attention / Q000502:physiology; D016739:Behavior, Addictive / Q000209:etiology* / Q000473:pathology; D020208:Brain Injury, Chronic / Q000150:complications / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000523:psychology; D002540:Cerebral Cortex / Q000473:pathology* / Q000503:physiopathology; D004569:Electroencephalography; D005260:Female; D005625:Frontal Lobe / Q000473:pathology; D007839:Functional Laterality / Q000502:physiology*; D006801:Humans; D008032:Limbic System / Q000473:pathology; D008297:Male; D016555:Matched-Pair Analysis; D008568:Memory / Q000502:physiology; D008606:Mental Processes / Q000502:physiology*; D008875:Middle Aged; D009483:Neuropsychological Tests; D012016:Reference Values; D013702:Temporal Lobe / Q000473:pathology; D014706:Verbal Learning / Q000502:physiology