title: Comparison of outcomes in cancer patients treated within and outside clinical trials: conceptual framework and structured review.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Many oncologists believe that patients with cancer who enroll in clinical trials have better outcomes than those who do not enroll. We aimed to assess the empirical evidence that such a trial effect exists.
  
  
  METHODS
  We developed a conceptual framework for comparison of trial and non-trial patients. We then did a comprehensive literature search to identify studies that compared outcomes between these groups. We critically evaluated these studies to assess whether they provide valid and generalizable support for a trial effect.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We identified 26 comparisons, from 24 published articles, of outcomes among cancer patients enrolled and not enrolled in clinical trials. 21 comparisons used retrospective cohort designs. 14 comparisons provided some evidence that patients enrolled in trials have improved outcomes. However, strategies to control for potential confounding factors were inconsistent and frequently inadequate. Only eight comparisons restricted non-trial patients to those meeting trial eligibility criteria. Of these, three noted better outcomes in trial patients than in non-trial patients. Children with cancer, patients with haematological malignant disease, and patients treated before 1986 were disproportionately represented in positive studies.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Despite widespread belief that enrollment in clinical trials leads to improved outcomes in patients with cancer, there are insufficient data to conclude that such a trial effect exists. Until such data are available, patients with cancer should be encouraged to enroll in clinical trials on the basis of trials' unquestioned role in improving treatment for future patients.
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
authors.forename: Jeffrey M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Peppercorn
authors.forename: Jane C
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Weeks
authors.forename: E Francis
authors.initials: EF
authors.lastname: Cook
authors.forename: Steven
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Joffe
mesh_terms: D002986:Clinical Trials as Topic / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D015331:Cohort Studies; D006801:Humans; D008962:Models, Theoretical; D009369:Neoplasms / Q000628:therapy*; D017063:Outcome Assessment, Health Care / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D018579:Patient Selection; D016032:Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D012189:Retrospective Studies; D016896:Treatment Outcome