New roles for estrogens in rheumatoid arthritis.
Sex hormones appear to play an important role as modulators of autoimmune disease onset/perpetuation. Steroid hormones are implicated in the immune response, with estrogens as enhancers at least of humoral immunity, and androgens and progesterone (and glucocorticoids) as natural immune suppressors. Serum levels of estrogens have been found to be normal in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients. Synovial fluid levels (SF) of proinflammatory estrogens relative to androgens are significantly elevated in both male and female RA patients as compared to controls, which is most probably due to an increase in local aromatase activity. Thus, available steroid pre-hormones are rapidly converted to proinflammatory estrogens in the synovial tissue in the presence of inflammatory cytokines (i.e. TNF alpha, IL-1, IL-6). The increased estrogen concentrations observed in RA SF of both sexes are characterized mainly by the hydroxylated forms, in particular 16 alpha-hydroxyestrone, showing a mitogenic stimulating role. Indeed, recent studies by us indicate that 17-beta estradiol (E2) clearly enhanced the expression of markers of cell growth and proliferation, whereas testosterone (T) induced an increase in markers indicating DNA damage and apoptosis. In particular, our data further shows that the enhancing role of estrogens on the immune/inflammatory response is exerted by activating the NFkB complex. In conclusion, locally increased estrogens may exert activating effects on synovial cell proliferation, including macrophages and fibroblasts, suggesting new roles for estrogens in RA.
Cutolo
M
M
Capellino
S
S
Montagna
P
P
Villaggio
B
B
Sulli
A
A
Seriolo
B
B
Straub
R H
RH
D000328:Adult; D017677:Age Distribution; D000368:Aged; D001172:Arthritis, Rheumatoid / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000453:epidemiology; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000032:analysis; D004967:Estrogens / Q000032:analysis / Q000096:biosynthesis*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D015994:Incidence; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D011379:Prognosis; D018570:Risk Assessment; D012680:Sensitivity and Specificity; D012720:Severity of Illness Index; D017678:Sex Distribution; D013582:Synovial Fluid / Q000737:chemistry*
D015415:Biomarkers; D004967:Estrogens