title: Contribution of eye retraction to swallowing performance in the northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens.
abstract: Most anurans retract and close their eyes repeatedly during swallowing. Eye retraction may aid swallowing by helping to push food back toward the esophagus, but this hypothesis has never been tested. We used behavioral observations, cineradiography, electromyography and nerve transection experiments to evaluate the contribution of eye retraction to swallowing in the northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens. Behavioral observations of frogs feeding on 1.5 cm long crickets reveal a high degree of variability in eye retraction and swallowing. Eye retraction can occur bilaterally or unilaterally, and both swallowing movements and eye retraction can occur separately as well as together. During swallowing, cineradiography shows that the eyes and associated musculature retract well into the oropharynx and appear to make contact with the prey item. This contact appears to help push the prey toward the esophagus, and it may also serve to anchor the prey for tongue-based transport. Electromyographic recordings confirm strong activity in the retractor bulbi muscles during eye retraction. After bilateral denervation of the retractor bulbi, frogs maintain the ability to swallow but show a 74% increase in the number of swallows required per cricket (from a mean of 2.3 swallows to a mean of 4.0 swallows per cricket). Our results indicate that, in Rana pipiens feeding on medium-sized crickets, eye retraction is an accessory swallowing mechanism that assists the primary tongue-based swallowing mechanism.
authors.affiliation: Biology Department and Organismic and Evolutionary Biology Program, University of Massachusetts Amherst, 611 North Pleasant St, Amherst, MA 01003, USA. robblevine@mac.com
authors.forename: Robert P
authors.initials: RP
authors.lastname: Levine
authors.forename: Jenna A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Monroy
authors.forename: Elizabeth L
authors.initials: EL
authors.lastname: Brainerd
mesh_terms: D000704:Analysis of Variance; D000818:Animals; D002933:Cineradiography; D003679:Deglutition / Q000502:physiology*; D004435:Eating / Q000502:physiology*; D004576:Electromyography; D005133:Eye Movements / Q000502:physiology*; D009121:Muscle Denervation; D009801:Oculomotor Muscles / Q000294:innervation; D011894:Rana pipiens / Q000502:physiology*