title: Management of agitation and convulsions in hepatic encephalopathy.
abstract: Hepatic encephalopathy represents a reversible decrease in neurological function caused by liver disease. Overall incidence of seizures in hepatic encephalopathy varies between 2% and 33%. Non-convulsive status epilepticus may be particularly common in these patients. Psychiatric disturbances manifest as agitation, personality change, delusions, etc. Aims of seizure management include treatment of basic disease, correction of precipitant factors, imaging of head, and choice of a pharmacologically safe agent. It is important to consider non-convulsive status epilepticus and rule it out by an EEG. Absolute data for safety profile of drugs in liver disease is still not clear, as changes of pharmacokinetics make choice of drugs difficult. Free drug concentrations may be higher, making plasma concentration monitoring essential in such circumstances. A single seizure may not require therapy. However when started, antiepileptic drugs are usually discontinued early. Drugs with sedative effects are best avoided because of a risk of precipitating coma. Phenytoin and gabapentin are relatively preferred drugs; however, monitoring of drug levels is desirable. Management of agitation includes physical restraint and medication. Benzodiazepines are best avoided. Haloperidol is a safer choice in the presence of liver disease. Overall management of neuropsychiatric state aims at management of underlying pathology, the resolution of which leads to improvement in the clinical symptomatology.
authors.affiliation: Department of Neurology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh 160 012. sudesh@prabhakars.com
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Prabhakar
authors.forename: R
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Bhatia
mesh_terms: D006501:Hepatic Encephalopathy / Q000150:complications* / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000523:psychology*; D006801:Humans; D011595:Psychomotor Agitation / Q000209:etiology* / Q000517:prevention & control; D012640:Seizures / Q000209:etiology* / Q000517:prevention & control*