title: Noninvasive inductive stent heating: alternative approach to prevent instent restenosis?
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To test noninvasive inductive heating of implanted vascular stents as an alternative approach for reduction or prevention of neointimal hyperplasia.
  
  
  METHODS
  Calorimetric pretests were performed to get an orientation on the different parameters of influence for inductive heating of stents. The field strength was set to a maximum of 90 kA/m within a frequency range from 80 kHz to 320 kHz. The electromagnetic field was emitted by a custom-made water-cooled copper winding antenna. A flow model for stent heating was set up to assess the increase in temperature of an expanded 316L stainless steel stent with typical coronary stent dimensions of 3.5 mm diameter and 14.5 mm in length, and in a second setup with 4.5 mm diameter and 13 mm in length, respectively. The stent was located in a bioartificial artery, simulated by a fibrinogen matrix with a defined number of vital cells. The system was exposed to a pulsating perfusion and to an electromagnetic field of 200 kHz over a period of 20 minutes and in a second setup to an electromagnetic field of 300 kHz and increasing intensity up to maximum power-output. Afterward, the artificial vessel was sliced and examined by fluorescence microscopy to evaluate the number and location of damaged cells.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The calorimetric tests show an exponential correlation of energy uptake in the stent with an increase in frequency and a constant generator output. At a frequency of 80 kHz, the power uptake accounts for 0.1 W (250 kHz 1.0 W; 320 kHz 1.9 W, respectively). The flow tests confirmed feasibility to elevate the stent temperature from 37 degrees C body temperature to 44 degrees C at 200 kHz within 55 seconds. The temperature increase of the fluid passing the heated vessel region was only marginal (maximum of 0.5 degrees C). Cell necrosis after 20 minutes of treatment was not observed. In a second set-up with 4.5 mm stent diameter, a frequency of 300 kHz and with maximum power output, the stent temperature was increased to 80 degrees C and there was extensive necrosis area around the stent. Treatment time and stent temperature were optimized in further tests.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Selective noninvasive energy transfer to coronary stainless steel stents by inductive heating is possible within a wide range of power. By thermal conduction, vital cells close to the stent struts can be affected. The frequency of 200 kHz turned out to be favorable. There is still room for further optimization of energy dosage with regard to material and stent design, to induce controlled cell death. The method has potential to serve as an alternative approach for prevention of instent restenosis.
authors.affiliation: Department of Experimental Radiology, Clinic for Diagnostic Radiology, University Hospital, Aachen Technical University, Pauwelsstrasse 30, 52057 Aachen, Germany. floren@rad.rwth-aachen.de
authors.forename: Michael G
authors.initials: MG
authors.lastname: Floren
authors.forename: Rolf W
authors.initials: RW
authors.lastname: Günther
authors.forename: Thomas
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Schmitz-Rode
mesh_terms: D002151:Calorimetry; D023903:Coronary Restenosis / Q000517:prevention & control*; D004574:Electromagnetic Fields; D006358:Hot Temperature / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D006801:Humans; D006965:Hyperplasia; D006979:Hyperthermia, Induced / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods*; D008279:Magnetic Resonance Imaging; D015607:Stents; D013814:Thermal Conductivity; D023822:Tissue Engineering