title: Fluoride, calcium and magnesium intake in children living in a high-fluoride area in Ethiopia. Intake through food.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The aim of this study was to assess the daily dietary fluoride intake in children living in two neighbouring villages in the Wonji Shoa Sugar Estate, a rural part of the Ethiopian Rift Valley.
  
  
  METHODS
  The villages depended on water from different sources: Village A used either river water (Awash River, with 1.8 mg F(-)/L) or ground water (2.1 mg F(-)/L), while village K was served ground water with 14 mg F(-)/L. Fifteen fully weaned children below the age of 5 years were selected in each of the villages. Over a four-day period the total food intake for these children was assessed by using a duplicate portion technique. The food was analysed for fluoride by using a fluoride ion-selective electrode after the dry ashing. Furthermore, the energy of the food was measured, as well as the calcium and magnesium contents (atomic absorption spectrometry after microwave digestion with nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide). The mothers gave a description of the ingredients used for preparing the food. Relevant background information concerning food habits, etc. was collected through a food frequency questionnaire.
  
  
  RESULTS
  This study shows that considerable amounts of fluoride may be retained in food prepared on high-fluoride water. In village A, food contributed 2.3 mg F(-)/day, while a dietary fluoride intake of 4.8 mg/day was found in children in village K. Interestingly, the sevenfold higher fluoride concentration of the water used for food preparation in village K compared to village A, gave only a doubling in fluoride intake through food. Calcium intake was relatively low while magnesium intake was above the recommended level.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  As the energy intake by both groups was low, some systematic underreporting might be suspected. Thus, the fluoride intake in the group may be even higher than what was actually found in this study.
authors.affiliation: University of Bergen, Department of Odontology, Arstadveien 17, N-5009 Bergen, Norway. marian.malde@nifes.no
authors.forename: M K
authors.initials: MK
authors.lastname: Malde
authors.forename: L
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Zerihun
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Julshamn
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Bjorvatn
mesh_terms: D002136:Calcium, Dietary / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D002675:Child, Preschool; D002149:Energy Intake; D005002:Ethiopia; D005247:Feeding Behavior; D005459:Fluorides / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000032:analysis; D005502:Food; D005504:Food Analysis; D005511:Food Handling; D006801:Humans; D017736:Ion-Selective Electrodes; D008274:Magnesium / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D009752:Nutritional Status; D012423:Rural Health; D013054:Spectrophotometry, Atomic; D014881:Water Supply / Q000032:analysis
chemical_list: D002136:Calcium, Dietary; D008274:Magnesium; D005459:Fluorides