title: [Macroscopic and endoscopic examinations of the head and neck region in ancient Egyptian mummies].
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The examination of mummies has mostly been performed by macroscopic investigation after unwrapping. During the last decades, however, several research groups provided clear evidence that the combination of various noninvasive approaches for the examination of mummies offers distinct advantages over the previously used methods of unwrapping and inspection. Particularly, the introduction of endoscopic techniques has been used for a closer examination of mummies without destroying them.
  
  
  METHODS
  In the last 5 years we analysed about 250 mummies and skeletons found in the necropolis of Thebes-West, Upper Egypt, with particular reference to normal and pathological findings in the head and neck region. Beside macroscopic examination we used endoscopes for the inspection of the nasal cavity and the ear.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Most individuals revealed normal macroscopic and endoscopic features. In particular, several skulls showed the auditory ossicles in normal anatomic position indicating an excellent conservation of the specimens. Nevertheless, pathological alterations could be detected affecting different regions of the head and neck. In particular, several individuals presented with fractures of the nasal bones. One case even revealed a severe old-healed fracture of the mid-face (type Le Fort III) with complete loss of all teeth, suggesting adequate "therapeutic" treatment of the skull fracture. Further findings, evidenced by endoscopy, were dentogenic sinusitis and chronic middle ear infections with intracranial perforation in one case. In addition, in one case fixation of the stapes suggests the residues of subluxation of the stapes.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  In this study, we provide further evidence that a careful macroscopic and endoscopic investigation of mummy skulls reveals important information on the state of conservation of the study population and may unravel distinct paleopathological diseases of the head and neck region.
authors.affiliation: Klinik für Hals-, Nasen- und Ohrenheilkunde der Ludwig-Maximillian-Universität München, Klinikum Grosshadern, München. l.h.hagedorn@t-online.de
authors.forename: H G
authors.initials: HG
authors.lastname: Hagedorn
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Zink
authors.forename: U
authors.initials: U
authors.lastname: Szeimies
authors.forename: A G
authors.initials: AG
authors.lastname: Nerlich
mesh_terms: D001106:Archaeology / Q000379:methods*; D000076144:Egypt, Ancient; D004724:Endoscopy / Q000379:methods*; D006257:Head / Q000473:pathology*; D049690:History, Ancient; D009106:Mummies / Q000266:history* / Q000473:pathology*; D009333:Neck / Q000473:pathology*; D010038:Otorhinolaryngologic Diseases / Q000266:history* / Q000473:pathology*