title: Absorption of kaempferol from endive, a source of kaempferol-3-glucuronide, in humans.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To determine the absorption, excretion and metabolism of kaempferol in humans.
  
  
  METHODS
  A pharmacokinetic study of kaempferol from endive over 24 h.
  
  
  METHODS
  Four healthy males and four healthy females.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Kaempferol, from a relatively low dose (9 mg), was absorbed from endive with a mean maximum plasma concentration of 0.1 microM, at a time of 5.8 h, indicating absorption from the distal section of the small intestine and/or the colon. Although a 7.5-fold interindividual variation between the highest and lowest maximum plasma concentration was observed, most individuals showed remarkably consistent pharmacokinetic profiles. This contrasts with profiles for other flavonoids that are absorbed predominantly from the large intestine (eg rutin). An average of 1.9% of the kaempferol dose was excreted in 24 h. Most subjects also showed an early absorption peak, probably corresponding to kaempferol-3-glucoside, present at a level of 14% in the endive. Kaempferol-3-glucuronide was the major compound detected in plasma and urine. Quercetin was not detected in plasma or urine indicating a lack of phase I hydroxylation of kaempferol.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Kaempferol is absorbed more efficiently than quercetin in humans even at low oral doses. The predominant form in plasma is a 3-glucuronide conjugate, and interindividual variation in absorption and excretion is low, suggesting that urinary kaempferol could be used as a biomarker for exposure.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Food Research, Norwich Research Park, Colney Lane, Norwich, UK.
authors.forename: M S
authors.initials: MS
authors.lastname: DuPont
authors.forename: A J
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Day
authors.forename: R N
authors.initials: RN
authors.lastname: Bennett
authors.forename: F A
authors.initials: FA
authors.lastname: Mellon
authors.forename: P A
authors.initials: PA
authors.lastname: Kroon
mesh_terms: D000284:Administration, Oral; D000328:Adult; D019659:Asteraceae / Q000737:chemistry*; D001682:Biological Availability; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000097:blood / Q000652:urine; D005260:Female; D006027:Glycosides / Q000032:analysis; D006801:Humans; D007408:Intestinal Absorption; D044949:Kaempferols / Q000097:blood / Q000493:pharmacokinetics* / Q000652:urine; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009753:Nutritive Value; D014675:Vegetables / Q000737:chemistry*
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D006027:Glycosides; D044949:Kaempferols; C006552:kaempferol