title: Feasibility of continuous long-term glucose monitoring from a subcutaneous glucose sensor in humans.
abstract: The feasibility of continuous long-term glucose monitoring in humans has not yet been demonstrated. Enzyme-based electrochemical glucose sensors with telemetric output were subcutaneously implanted and evaluated in five human subjects with type I diabetes. Subject-worn radio-receiver data-loggers stored sensor outputs. Every 1-4 weeks the subject's glucose levels were manipulated through the full clinical range of interest using standard protocols. Reference blood glucose samples were obtained every 5-10 min and analyzed in our hospital clinical laboratory and/or on glucose meters. The sensor data were evaluated versus the reference data by linear least squares regression and by the Clarke Error Grid method. After surgical explantation and device inspection, the tissue-sensor interface was evaluated histologically. The remaining sensor-membranes were also recalibrated for comparison with preimplant performance. Four of the five glucose sensors tracked glucose in vivo. One sensor responded to manipulated glucose changes for 6.2 months with clinically useful performance (>/=90% of sensor glucose values within the A and B regions of the Clarke Error Grid). For this sensor, recalibration was required every 1-4 weeks. The other three transiently responding sensors had electronic problems associated with packaging failure. The remaining sensor never tracked glucose because of failure to form any sustained connection to adjacent subcutaneous tissue. Thus, stable, clinically useful sensor performance was demonstrated in one of five subjects with diabetes for a sustained interval of greater than 6 months. While this glucose sensor implant technology shows promise in humans, it needs to be made more reliable and robust with respect to device packaging and sensor-tissue connection.
authors.affiliation: Biomedical Engineering Laboratory, Department of Medicine, University of Wisconsin Center for Health Sciences, Madison, USA.
authors.forename: Barbara C
authors.initials: BC
authors.lastname: Gilligan
authors.forename: Mark
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Shults
authors.forename: Rathbun K
authors.initials: RK
authors.lastname: Rhodes
authors.forename: Peter G
authors.initials: PG
authors.lastname: Jacobs
authors.forename: James H
authors.initials: JH
authors.lastname: Brauker
authors.forename: Thomas J
authors.initials: TJ
authors.lastname: Pintar
authors.forename: Stuart J
authors.initials: SJ
authors.lastname: Updike
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D015374:Biosensing Techniques; D001786:Blood Glucose / Q000032:analysis*; D002138:Calibration; D003922:Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1 / Q000097:blood*; D005260:Female; D005951:Glucose Tolerance Test; D006801:Humans; D007004:Hypoglycemic Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use; D007328:Insulin / Q000031:analogs & derivatives* / Q000627:therapeutic use; D061268:Insulin Lispro; D016018:Least-Squares Analysis; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D018670:Monitoring, Ambulatory / Q000379:methods*; D019736:Prostheses and Implants; D012044:Regression Analysis; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D012680:Sensitivity and Specificity
chemical_list: D001786:Blood Glucose; D007004:Hypoglycemic Agents; D007328:Insulin; D061268:Insulin Lispro