title: Gender-related difference, geographical variation and time trend in dietary cadmium intake in Japan.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The present analysis was initiated to examine possible gender-dependency, geographic variation, and time-dependent changes in dietary intake of cadmium (Cd-F) among general populations in Cd-non-polluted areas in Japan. The role of rice as Cd-F source was also within the scope.
  
  
  METHODS
  Two databases on Cd and nutritional analyses were re-visited. Both databases were established through collection of 24-h food duplicate portion samples from residents in areas with no known Cd pollution, and contained information on Cd and energy contents in the duplicate portion, together with daily rice consumption, the gender, the age and the location of the residence of each sample donor. The first and the second databases were established through surveys in the years around 1980 on 564 cases and around 1995 on 702 cases, respectively. The two databases were combined for evaluation by multiple regression (MRA) and other analyses.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The analyses showed that men tended to take more Cd than women, more clearly so in the 1980 survey than in the 1995 survey. When Cd-F in the 1995 survey was compared with that in the 1980 survey, a substantial decrease was observed, e.g. by 30% (from 37.5 to 26.2 microg/day) in case of women. Cd-F values varied subject to the survey sites in a wide range (e.g. from 20 to 86 microg/day among women in the 1980 survey). In MRA with Cd-F as a dependent variable and survey sites and food intake factors (e.g. rice and energy intakes) as independent variables, the survey sites could explain more than 53% and 35% of total variation in Cd-F in the 1980 and 1995 surveys, respectively. Rice consumption was also influential to Cd-F in both surveys with partial correlation coefficients of 0.36 and 0.21, respectively, the influence being stronger in the 1980 survey than in the 1995 survey. A significant correlation was detected between the 1980 and 1995 survey results both in Cd-F and in rice consumption.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Geographic and gender-related differences, and time-dependent decrease in dietary Cd intake in Japan were detected through analyses of food duplicate-based databases. The leading role of rice as dietary Cd source was also observed.
authors.affiliation: Miyagi University of Education, Sendai 980-0845, Japan.
authors.forename: T
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Watanabe
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Shimbo
authors.forename: H
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Nakatsuka
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Koizumi
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Higashikawa
authors.forename: N
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Matsuda-Inoguchi
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Ikeda
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D002136:Calcium, Dietary; D016208:Databases, Factual; D004032:Diet; D005260:Female; D005843:Geography; D006801:Humans; D007564:Japan; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009749:Nutrition Surveys; D012275:Oryza / Q000737:chemistry; D012737:Sex Factors
chemical_list: D002136:Calcium, Dietary