title: Glucocorticoid-induced muscle atrophy: mechanisms and therapeutic strategies.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To analyze the mechanisms of action of glucocorticoids in causing muscle atrophy and to examine the therapeutic effect of testosterone as well as other treatment modalities in counteracting this adverse effect.
  
  
  METHODS
  We reviewed selected publications to analyze the mechanisms of glucocorticoid-induced muscle atrophy in animal models and in humans. The pathophysiologic features of glucocorticoid-induced hypogonadism and the possible relationship to the muscle atrophy in patients receiving glucocorticoids were assessed. The beneficial effects of testosterone on the muscles of hypogonadal and eugonadal men were also reviewed. Other measures such as exercise and glutamine and their possible therapeutic and preventive effects were examined in the context of hypercortisolemia.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Glucocorticoids induce rapid muscle breakdown and proximal muscle atrophy. The mechanism of glucocorticoid-induced muscle atrophy relies on the degradation of the myosin heavy chain (catabolic effect), the most important contractile protein in muscle, associated with a decrease of its synthesis (antianabolic effect). One of the contributing factors in the development of muscle atrophy is hypogonadism that is induced by long-term glucocorticoid use. Androgen possesses anabolic and anticatabolic effects in vitro and in animal models. Androgens can be used safely to counteract the catabolic effects of cortisol. Other measures such as exercise, glutamine, and alanyl-glutamine are promising in animal models of glucocorticoid-induced muscle atrophy.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This study suggests the possible efficacy of testosterone and glutamine on glucocorticoid-induced muscle atrophy. Testosterone and glutamine are natural biologic products with safe pharmacologic profiles, and their bioefficacy merits active research in humans.
authors.affiliation: Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science, Los Angeles, California, USA.
authors.forename: B
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Salehian
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Kejriwal