Amphids: the neuronal ultrastructure of macrocyclic-lactone-resistant Haemonchus contortus.
The development of anthelmintic resistance by nematode parasites is a growing problem for veterinarians and producers. The intensive use of the macrocyclic lactones for the treatment of a variety of parasitic diseases has hastened the development of resistance to this family of parasiticides among sheep, goats and cattle. As a result, resistance to ivermectin, moxidectin and doramectin by Haemonchus contortus has been documented throughout the world. While the exact sites of action of the macrocyclic lactones remain incompletely known, a critical point of entry for these drugs may be the terminally exposed sensory major neurons located in the cephalic end of the worms. These neurons, called amphidial neurons, are located in a pair of channels, the amphids, on either side of the pharynx and are exposed to the external environment via pores at the anterior tip of the worm. Through these neurons, important chemical and thermal cues are gathered by the parasite. Examination of serial electron micrographs of ivermectin-susceptible and ivermectin-resistant H. contortus allows for comparison of neuronal structure, arrangement of neurons within the amphidial channel, and distance of the tip of the dendritic processes to the amphidial pore. The latter of these characteristics provides a useful means by which to compare the association between the neurons and the external environment of the worm. Comparison of parental laboratory strains of ivermectin-susceptible H. contortus with related selected, ivermectin-resistant strains and with a wild-type ivermectin-susceptible field strain of H. contortus from Louisiana reveals that the ivermectin-resistant worms examined have markedly shorter sensory cilia than their ivermectin-susceptible parental counterparts. Additionally, the amphidial neurons of ivermectin-resistant worms are characterized by generalized degeneration and loss of detail, whereas other neurons outside of the channels, such as the labial and cephalic neurons, are normal in structure. Similar degeneration was also observed in field strains of doramectin-resistant H. contortus collected from a New Jersey alpaca heard. These findings raise a number of questions regarding the relationship between amphidial structure and macrocyclic lactone resistance as well as the role of amphids as a means of entry for these molecules. While shortened amphidial sensilla are associated with ivermectin resistance, it remains unclear if such a structural modification facilitates survival of nematodes exposed to the macrocyclic lactones.
Guerrero
J
J
Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3800 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
Freeman
A S
AS
D000825:Animal Structures / Q000166:cytology*; D000818:Animals; D000871:Anthelmintics / Q000494:pharmacology*; D002923:Cilia / Q000648:ultrastructure; D018432:Drug Resistance, Multiple; D006189:Haemonchus / Q000166:cytology / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000254:growth & development; D007559:Ivermectin / Q000031:analogs & derivatives* / Q000494:pharmacology*; D007814:Larva; D018942:Macrolides / Q000494:pharmacology*; D009474:Neurons / Q000648:ultrastructure*; D012679:Sense Organs / Q000166:cytology*; D013045:Species Specificity
D000871:Anthelmintics; D018942:Macrolides; D007559:Ivermectin; C084101:doramectin; C027837:moxidectin