title: Gangliosides link the acidic sphingomyelinase-mediated induction of ceramide to 12-lipoxygenase-dependent apoptosis of neuroblastoma in response to fenretinide.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The lipid second messenger ceramide, which is generated by acidic and neutral sphingomyelinases or ceramide synthases, is a common intermediate of many apoptotic pathways. Metabolism of ceramide involves several enzymes, including glucosylceramide synthase and GD3 synthase, and results in the formation of gangliosides (GM3, GD3, and GT3), which in turn promote the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and apoptosis. Fenretinide, a retinoic acid derivative, is thought to induce apoptosis via increases in ceramide levels, but the link between ceramide and subsequent apoptosis in neuroblastoma cells is unclear.
  
  
  METHODS
  SH-SY5Y and HTLA230 neuroblastoma cells were treated with fenretinide in the presence or absence of inhibitors of enzymes important in ceramide metabolism (fumonisin B1, inhibitor of ceramide synthase; desipramine, inhibitor of acidic and neutral sphingomyelinases; and PDMP, inhibitor of glucosylceramide). Small interfering RNAs were used to specifically block acidic sphingomyelinase or GD3 synthase activities. Apoptosis, ROS, and GD3 expression were measured by flow cytometry.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In neuroblastoma cells, ROS generation and apoptosis were associated with fenretinide-induced increased levels of ceramide, glucosylceramide synthase activity, GD3 synthase activity, and GD3. Fenretinide also induced increased levels of GD2, a ganglioside derived from GD3. Inhibition of acidic sphingomyelinase but not of neutral sphingomyelinase or ceramide synthase, blocked fenretinide-induced increases in ceramide, ROS, and apoptosis. Exogenous GD3 induced ROS and apoptosis in SH-SY5Y cells but not in SH-SY5Y cells treated with baicalein, a specific 12-lipoxygenase inhibitor. Exogenous GD2 did not induce apoptosis.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  A novel pathway of fenretinide-induced apoptosis is mediated by acidic sphingomyelinase, glucosylceramide synthase, and GD3 synthase, which may represent targets for future drug development. GD3 may be a key signaling intermediate leading to apoptosis via the activation of 12-lipoxygenase.
authors.affiliation: Northern Institute for Cancer Research, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
authors.forename: Penny E
authors.initials: PE
authors.lastname: Lovat
authors.forename: Federica
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Di Sano
authors.forename: Marco
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Corazzari
authors.forename: Barbara
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Fazi
authors.forename: Raffaele Perrone
authors.initials: RP
authors.lastname: Donnorso
authors.forename: Andy D J
authors.initials: AD
authors.lastname: Pearson
authors.forename: Andrew G
authors.initials: AG
authors.lastname: Hall
authors.forename: Christopher P F
authors.initials: CP
authors.lastname: Redfern
authors.forename: Mauro
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Piacentini
mesh_terms: D000970:Antineoplastic Agents / Q000494:pharmacology*; D017209:Apoptosis / Q000187:drug effects*; D001092:Arachidonate 12-Lipoxygenase / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism*; D045744:Cell Line, Tumor; D002518:Ceramides / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors / Q000378:metabolism*; D003891:Desipramine / Q000494:pharmacology; D004789:Enzyme Activation / Q000187:drug effects; D004791:Enzyme Inhibitors / Q000494:pharmacology*; D017313:Fenretinide / Q000494:pharmacology*; D005434:Flow Cytometry; D037341:Fumonisins / Q000494:pharmacology; D005732:Gangliosides / Q000378:metabolism*; D015972:Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic; D005964:Glucosyltransferases / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors / Q000378:metabolism; D006801:Humans; D009025:Morpholines / Q000494:pharmacology; D009447:Neuroblastoma / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000201:enzymology / Q000378:metabolism*; D010088:Oxidoreductases / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors / Q000378:metabolism; D034741:RNA, Small Interfering / Q000378:metabolism; D017382:Reactive Oxygen Species / Q000378:metabolism; D013108:Sphingomyelin Phosphodiesterase / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors / Q000378:metabolism*
chemical_list: D000970:Antineoplastic Agents; D002518:Ceramides; D004791:Enzyme Inhibitors; D037341:Fumonisins; D005732:Gangliosides; D009025:Morpholines; D034741:RNA, Small Interfering; D017382:Reactive Oxygen Species; D017313:Fenretinide; C056933:fumonisin B1; C033110:RV 538; D010088:Oxidoreductases; D001092:Arachidonate 12-Lipoxygenase; C108138:dihydroceramide desaturase; D005964:Glucosyltransferases; C023246:ceramide glucosyltransferase; D013108:Sphingomyelin Phosphodiesterase; D003891:Desipramine