title: Human norovirus infection and the lessons from animal caliciviruses.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Human noroviruses are a major cause of infectious intestinal disease, particularly in the health sector, with considerable knock-on effects on care provision through ward closures and staff sickness. This review will describe recent advances in our understanding of human noroviruses. In addition, we will consider related nonhuman caliciviruses to highlight some potential difficulties in the control of caliciviral disease.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Using more sensitive reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction based assays, noroviruses are now recognized as the most common cause of infectious intestinal disease in the community, as well as outbreaks of the infectious intestinal disease. After recovery from acute disease, some individuals continue shedding norovirus, particularly if immunosuppressed. The noroviruses are extremely variable, which has important implications for protection following challenge, and for future vaccination. From amongst this variability, new strains have emerged with the potential to spread widely. Recently a mouse norovirus has been identified which will afford new insights into the biology of these important viruses. Studies on human susceptibility have identified some resistant individuals in the population and a potential virus receptor, which may lead to the development of novel antiviral therapies.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Lack of cell culture systems for the human noroviruses is being overcome by molecular technologies. Such studies have provided new insight into the significance and epidemiology of these viruses and opened the possibility of disease control through vaccination. Work on nonhuman caliciviruses has interesting parallels with human noroviruses, and provides new insights into the understanding of these important human pathogens.
authors.affiliation: University of Liverpool, Leahurst Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Neston, S. Wirral CH64 7TE, UK. alanrad@liv.ac.uk
authors.forename: Alan D
authors.initials: AD
authors.lastname: Radford
authors.forename: Rosalind M
authors.initials: RM
authors.lastname: Gaskell
authors.forename: C Anthony
authors.initials: CA
authors.lastname: Hart
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D017250:Caliciviridae Infections / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000517:prevention & control / Q000635:transmission / Q000821:virology; D017927:Calicivirus, Feline / Q000145:classification / Q000235:genetics / Q000472:pathogenicity; D002415:Cats; D005759:Gastroenteritis / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000517:prevention & control / Q000821:virology; D006801:Humans; D051379:Mice; D029322:Norovirus / Q000145:classification / Q000235:genetics / Q000472:pathogenicity