title: Digital three-dimensional photogrammetry: evaluation of anthropometric precision and accuracy using a Genex 3D camera system.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To determine the precision and accuracy of facial anthropometric measurements obtained through digital three-dimensional (3D) photogrammetry.
  
  
  METHODS
  Nineteen standard craniofacial measurements were repeatedly obtained on 20 subjects by two independent observers, using calipers and 3D photos (obtained with a Genex 3D camera system), both with and without facial landmarks labeled. Four different precision estimates were then calculated and compared statistically across techniques. In addition, mean measurements from 3D photos were compared statistically with those from direct anthropometry.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In terms of measurement precision, the 3D photos were clearly better than direct anthropometry. In almost all cases, the 3D photo with landmarks labeled had the highest overall precision. In addition, labeling landmarks prior to taking measurements improved precision, regardless of method. Good congruence was observed between means derived from the 3D photos and direct anthropometry. Statistically significant differences were noted for seven measurements; however, the magnitude of these differences was often clinically insignificant (< 2 mm).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Digital 3D photogrammetry with the Genex camera system is sufficiently precise and accurate for the anthropometric needs of most medical and craniofacial research designs.
authors.affiliation: Department of Anthropology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.
authors.forename: Seth M
authors.initials: SM
authors.lastname: Weinberg
authors.forename: Nicole M
authors.initials: NM
authors.lastname: Scott
authors.forename: Katherine
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Neiswanger
authors.forename: Carla A
authors.initials: CA
authors.lastname: Brandon
authors.forename: Mary L
authors.initials: ML
authors.lastname: Marazita
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D002508:Cephalometry / Q000295:instrumentation* / Q000379:methods*; D005145:Face / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D006801:Humans; D007091:Image Processing, Computer-Assisted / Q000379:methods*; D021621:Imaging, Three-Dimensional / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods*; D008875:Middle Aged; D015588:Observer Variation; D010780:Photogrammetry / Q000295:instrumentation*; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D018709:Statistics, Nonparametric