title: Estrogen in cardiovascular disease.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The controversy surrounding hormone replacement therapy has induced fear in patients and left many researchers with the impression that estrogen produces negative effects on cardiovascular function. The aim of this review is to summarize recent findings illustrating that estrogen also has positive effects even if estrogen replacement therapy is not a cure-all.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Studies have unveiled new aspects of estrogen action in the cardiovascular system; however, clinical trials have not demonstrated a protective effect of the most widely used modalities of hormone replacement therapy against cardiovascular disease. New information has emerged showing that estrogen has both beneficial and detrimental effects. Further mechanistic studies and use of well defined forms of estrogens and selective estrogen receptor modulators will continue to provide novel mechanistic information that will likely lead to the development of new avenues for therapeutic interventions.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Estrogens, like other steroid hormones, are potent actors in the cardiovascular system. Since half the population have high levels of estrogen most of their lives it is plain that estrogen has a variety of beneficial physiologic functions. Clinical studies, however, have demonstrated that a specific formulation of a combination of potent estrogens and metabolites is not a magic bullet, but induces both positive and negative impacts on different organ systems. More research into the mechanistic actions of estrogens in specific pathways in individual cell types is necessary to determine appropriate therapeutic interventions to replace the loss of positive effects of estrogens while minimizing the negative effects in postmenopausal women.
authors.affiliation: Department of Pediatrics, University of Kentucky Medical School, Lexington, Kentucky 40536-0230, USA.
authors.forename: Weifei
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Zhu
authors.forename: William V
authors.initials: WV
authors.lastname: Everson
authors.forename: Eric J
authors.initials: EJ
authors.lastname: Smart
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000975:Antioxidants / Q000378:metabolism; D002318:Cardiovascular Diseases / Q000473:pathology* / Q000517:prevention & control*; D004730:Endothelium, Vascular / Q000378:metabolism; D004967:Estrogens / Q000378:metabolism*; D005260:Female; D020249:Hormone Replacement Therapy; D006801:Humans; D008074:Lipoproteins / Q000378:metabolism; D008264:Macrophages / Q000378:metabolism; D009000:Monocytes / Q000378:metabolism
chemical_list: D000975:Antioxidants; D004967:Estrogens; D008074:Lipoproteins