Twenty-first century surgery using twenty-first century technology: surgical robotics.
BACKGROUND
The "Nintendo" surgery revolution, which began in 1987, has impacted every surgical specialty. However, our operating rooms remain isolated worlds where surgeons use awkward, primitive, rigid instruments with suboptimal visualization. We need "smart instruments," "smart technology," and "smart imaging." Is surgical robotics the answer?


METHODS
We provide an analysis of current surgical technology and skills, propose criteria for what the next generation of surgical instruments and technology should achieve, and then examine the evolution and current state of surgical robotic solutions, assessing how they answer future surgical needs. Finally we report on the U.S. Military's early experience with surgical robotics and the lessons learned therein.


RESULTS
Current surgical robotic technology has made remarkable progress with miniaturization, articulating hand-imitating instruments, precision, scaling, and three-dimensional vision. The specialty-specific early clinical applications reviewed are promising, but they do have limitations. Surgical robotics offers enormous military application potential. Needed future refinements are identified, including haptics, communications, infrastructure, and information integration.


CONCLUSIONS
Laparoscopic surgery is a transition technology, constrained by instrument, equipment, and skill limitations. Surgical robotics or, more properly, computer-assisted surgery may be the key to the future. The operating room of the future will be an integrated environment with global reach. Surgeons will operate with three-dimensional vision, use real-time three-dimensional reconstructions of patient anatomy, use miniaturized minimally invasive robotic technology, and be able to telementor, teleconsult, and even telemanipulate at a distance, thus offering enhanced patient care and safety.
Marohn
Michael R
MR
Department of Surgery, Uniformed Services University, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.
Hanly
Eric J
EJ
D013502:General Surgery / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000639:trends*; D010535:Laparoscopy / Q000639:trends; D008887:Military Medicine / Q000639:trends; D012371:Robotics / Q000639:trends*; D025321:Surgery, Computer-Assisted / Q000639:trends; D014481:United States