title: [Intravenous morphine titration].
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To describe principles of intravenous (i.v.) morphine titration. To analyse current knowledge based on the experimental and clinical studies. To describe clinical implications in the operating room, postanaesthesia care unit (PACU), prehospital care, emergency and intensive care units (ICU), and cancerology. To provide recommendations for clinical practice.
  
  
  METHODS
  Search in the Medline database without limitation, using the following keywords: morphine titration.
  
  
  METHODS
  All types of articles were selected including prospective randomised (or not randomised) studies in adults and children, practice guidelines, reviews, editorials and case reports.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Intravenous (i.v.) morphine titration is a pharmacological method which involves morphine boluses administration until pain relief, allowing a limitation in morphine side effects which are mainly dose dependent. I.v. morphine titration is widely used in prehospital care, emergency unit, PACU, ICU, and cancerology, in young and elderly patients. In the PACU, when the VAS (visual analogue scale) increases to more than 30 mm, i.v. morphine titration every five minutes with an unlimited number of 2 or 3 mg boluses provides an efficient analgesic regimen in adults. Titration is performed until pain relief (VAS < or =30), sedation that is the most frequent side effect during i.v. morphine titration (Ramsay score >1), severe side effects (like respiratory depression).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Because of important pharmacological variability in morphine need, iv morphine titration is a simple method which allows a rapid and efficient pain relief notably in the postoperative care.
authors.affiliation: Département d'anesthésie-réanimation chirurgicale, groupe hospitalier Pitié-Salpétrière, assistance publique-hôpitaux de Paris, université Pierre-et-Marie-Curie, 47-83, boulevard de l'Hôpital, 75651 Paris 13, France. frederic.aubrun@psl.ap-hop-paris.fr
authors.forename: F
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Aubrun
authors.forename: N
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Valade
authors.forename: B
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Riou
mesh_terms: D000701:Analgesics, Opioid / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000493:pharmacokinetics; D002986:Clinical Trials as Topic; D006801:Humans; D007262:Infusions, Intravenous; D009020:Morphine / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000493:pharmacokinetics*; D016032:Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic
chemical_list: D000701:Analgesics, Opioid; D009020:Morphine