title: Executive functions in elementary school children with and without problems in written expression.
abstract: This study examined the executive functioning of 55 elementary school children with and without problems in written expression. Two groups reflecting children with and without significant writing problems were defined by an average primary trait rating across two separate narratives. The groups did not differ in terms of chronological age, ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, special education status, or presence of attention problems or receptive vocabulary capabilities; however, they did differ in reading decoding ability, and this variable was controlled for in all analyses. Dependent measures included tasks tapping an array of executive functions grouped conceptually in accordance with a model of executive functioning reflecting the following domains: initiate, sustain, set shifting, and inhibition/stopping. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) procedures revealed statistically significant group differences on the initiation and set shift domains, with the sustaining domain approaching significance. Children with writing problems performed more poorly in each of these domains, although the effect sizes were small. A multiple regression that employed these four factors and the reading decoding variable to predict the primary trait score from the written narratives revealed a statistically significant regression function; however, reading decoding contributed most of the unique variance to the writing outcome. These findings point out the importance of executive functions in the written language process for elementary school students, but highlight the need to examine other variables when studying elementary school-age children with written expression problems.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry, Clinical Center for the Study of Development and Learning, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill 27599-7255, USA. Shooper@css.unc.edu
authors.forename: Stephen R
authors.initials: SR
authors.lastname: Hooper
authors.forename: Carl W
authors.initials: CW
authors.lastname: Swartz
authors.forename: Melissa B
authors.initials: MB
authors.lastname: Wakely
authors.forename: Renée E L
authors.initials: RE
authors.lastname: de Kruif
authors.forename: James W
authors.initials: JW
authors.lastname: Montgomery
mesh_terms: D002648:Child; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007859:Learning Disabilities / Q000503:physiopathology*; D008297:Male; D008606:Mental Processes; D014956:Writing