title: Environmental factors and risk for hepatocellular carcinoma.
abstract: Chronic infections with hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) are the most important risk factors for the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in humans. HBV is the primary cause of HCC in high-risk areas including China and Africa, whereas in developed countries such as the United States, HCV plays a more prominent role and is at least partially responsible for the increase in HCC incidence in this country. Humans are exposed to hepatocarcinogenic aflatoxins through ingestion of moldy foods, a consequence of poor storage of susceptible grains. Highly exposed populations are primarily in sub-Sahara Africa and Asia, where dietary aflatoxins significantly enhance the carcinogenic effects of viral hepatitis. Heavy, long-term alcohol use is a risk factor for HCC, whereas moderate use (1-3 drinks/day) is not. Constituents of cigarette smoke are hepatic carcinogens in animals, and there is mounting evidence that the liver is an organ susceptible to tobacco carcinogenicity. Diabetic patients are at risk for HCC probably as a result of the hepatic injury, fibrosis, and eventual cirrhosis resulting from fatty liver disease. Given the current epidemic of obesity and diabetes in the United States, this risk factor will be increasingly important. Increased risk for HCC is evident in young noncirrhotic users of oral contraceptives in the United States and Europe. In summary, risk factors for HCC are identifiable in most patients and primarily are associated with chronic hepatic injury.
authors.affiliation: Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90033, USA. mimiyu@usc.edu
authors.forename: Mimi C
authors.initials: MC
authors.lastname: Yu
authors.forename: Jian-Min
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Yuan
mesh_terms: D000348:Aflatoxins / Q000009:adverse effects; D000428:Alcohol Drinking / Q000009:adverse effects; D000975:Antioxidants; D001151:Arsenic / Q000009:adverse effects; D006528:Carcinoma, Hepatocellular / Q000209:etiology* / Q000821:virology*; D003276:Contraceptives, Oral / Q000009:adverse effects; D048909:Diabetes Complications; D016174:Hepacivirus / Q000472:pathogenicity*; D006515:Hepatitis B virus / Q000472:pathogenicity*; D019694:Hepatitis B, Chronic / Q000150:complications*; D019698:Hepatitis C, Chronic / Q000150:complications*; D006801:Humans; D008103:Liver Cirrhosis; D008113:Liver Neoplasms / Q000209:etiology* / Q000821:virology*; D009765:Obesity / Q000150:complications; D012307:Risk Factors; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects
chemical_list: D000348:Aflatoxins; D000975:Antioxidants; D003276:Contraceptives, Oral; D001151:Arsenic