title: Exploring polyethylenimine-mediated DNA transfection and the proton sponge hypothesis.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The relatively high transfection efficiency of polyethylenimine (PEI) vectors has been hypothesized to be due to their ability to avoid trafficking to degradative lysosomes. According to the proton sponge hypothesis, the buffering capacity of PEI leads to osmotic swelling and rupture of endosomes, resulting in the release of the vector into the cytoplasm.
  
  
  METHODS
  The mechanism of PEI-mediated DNA transfer was investigated using quantitative methods to study individual steps in the overall transfection process. In addition to transfection efficiency, the cellular uptake, local pH environment, and stability of vectors were analyzed. N-Quaternized (and therefore non-proton sponge) versions of PEI and specific cell function inhibitors were used to further probe the proton sponge hypothesis.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Both N-quaternization and the use of bafilomycin A1 (a vacuolar proton pump inhibitor) reduced the transfection efficiency of PEI by approximately two orders of magnitude. Chloroquine, which buffers lysosomes, enhanced the transfection efficiency of N-quaternized PEIs and polylysine by 2-3-fold. In contrast, chloroquine did not improve the transfection efficiency of PEI. The measured average pH environment of PEI vectors was 6.1, indicating that they successfully avoid trafficking to acidic lysosomes. Significantly lower average pH environments were observed for permethyl-PEI (pH 5.4), perethyl-PEI (pH 5.1), and polylysine (pH 4.6) vectors. Cellular uptake levels of permethyl-PEI and perethyl-PEI vectors were found to be 20 and 90% higher, respectively, than that of parent PEI vectors, indicating that the reduction in transfection activity of the N-quaternized PEIs is due to a barrier downstream of cellular uptake. A polycation/DNA-binding affinity assessment showed that the more charge dense N-quaternized PEIs bind DNA less tightly than PEI, demonstrating that poor vector unpackaging was not responsible for the reduced transfection activity of the N-quaternized PEIs.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The results obtained are consistent with the proton sponge hypothesis and strongly suggest that the transfection activity of PEI vectors is due to their unique ability to avoid acidic lysosomes.
authors.affiliation: Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
authors.forename: Akin
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Akinc
authors.forename: Mini
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Thomas
authors.forename: Alexander M
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Klibanov
authors.forename: Robert
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Langer
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents / Q000494:pharmacology; D019556:COS Cells; D002522:Chlorocebus aethiops; D002738:Chloroquine / Q000494:pharmacology; D003593:Cytoplasm / Q000378:metabolism; D004247:DNA / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D011992:Endosomes / Q000378:metabolism; D018014:Gene Transfer Techniques; D005822:Genetic Vectors / Q000378:metabolism*; D006863:Hydrogen-Ion Concentration; D008156:Luciferases / Q000378:metabolism; D018942:Macrolides / Q000494:pharmacology; D011094:Polyethyleneimine / Q000031:analogs & derivatives* / Q000494:pharmacology*; D011107:Polylysine / Q000378:metabolism; D011108:Polymers / Q000378:metabolism; D054328:Proton Pump Inhibitors
chemical_list: D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents; D018942:Macrolides; D011108:Polymers; D054328:Proton Pump Inhibitors; D011107:Polylysine; D002738:Chloroquine; C040929:bafilomycin A1; D011094:Polyethyleneimine; D004247:DNA; D008156:Luciferases