The use of isotope effects to determine enzyme mechanisms.
Isotope effects are one of the most powerful kinetic tools for determining enzyme mechanisms. There are three methods of measurement. First, one can compare reciprocal plots with labeled and unlabeled substrates. The ratio of the slopes is the isotope effect on V/K, and the ratio of the vertical intercepts is the isotope effect on V(max). This is the only way to determine V(max) isotope effects, but is limited to isotope effects of 5% or greater. The second method is internal competition, where the labeled and unlabeled substrates are present at the same time and the change in their ratio in residual substrate or in product is used to calculate an isotope effect, which is that on V/K of the labeled reactant. This is the method used for tritium or (14)C, or with the natural abundances of (13)C, (15)N, or (18)O. The third method involves perturbations from equilibrium when a labeled substrate and corresponding unlabeled product are present at chemical equilibrium. This also gives just an isotope effect on V/K for the labeled reactant. The chemistry is typically not fully rate limiting, so that the isotope effect on V/K is given by: (x)(V/K)=((x)k+c(f)+c(r)(x)K(eq))/(1+c(f)+c(r)) where x defines the isotope (D, T, 13, 15, 18 for deuterium, tritium, (13)C, (15)N, or (18)O), and (x)(V/K), (x)k, and (x)K(eq) are the observed isotope effect, the intrinsic one on the chemical step, and the isotope effect on the equilibrium constant, respectively. The constants c(f) and c(r) are commitments in forward and reverse directions, and are the ratio of the rate constant for the chemical reaction and the net rate constant for release from the enzyme of the varied substrate (direct comparison) or labeled substrate (internal competition and equilibrium perturbation) for c(f), or the first product released or the one involved in the perturbation for c(r). The intrinsic isotope effect, (x)k, can be estimated by comparing deuterium and tritium isotope effects on V/K, or by comparing the deuterium isotope effect with (13)C ones with deuterated and undeuterated substrates. Adding a secondary deuterium isotope effect and its effect on the (13)C one can give an exact solution for all intrinsic isotope effects and commitments. The effect of deuteration on a (13)C isotope effect allows one to tell if the two isotope effects are on the same or different steps. Applications of these methods to several enzyme systems will be presented.
Cleland
W W
WW
Institute for Enzyme Research and Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin, 1710 University Avenue, Madison, WI 53726, USA. Cleland@enzyme.wisc.edu
D001221:Aspartate Carbamoyltransferase / Q000378:metabolism; D002247:Carbon Isotopes / Q000378:metabolism; D003903:Deuterium / Q000378:metabolism; D004798:Enzymes / Q000378:metabolism*; D005560:Formate Dehydrogenases / Q000378:metabolism; D005954:Glucosephosphate Dehydrogenase / Q000737:chemistry / Q000378:metabolism; D007553:Isotope Labeling / Q000379:methods; D007554:Isotopes / Q000378:metabolism*; D007700:Kinetics; D008433:Mathematics; D015394:Molecular Structure; D009587:Nitrogen Isotopes / Q000378:metabolism; D010103:Oxygen Isotopes / Q000378:metabolism; D010650:Phenylalanine Ammonia-Lyase / Q000378:metabolism; D013379:Substrate Specificity; D014316:Tritium / Q000378:metabolism
D002247:Carbon Isotopes; D004798:Enzymes; D007554:Isotopes; D009587:Nitrogen Isotopes; D010103:Oxygen Isotopes; D014316:Tritium; D003903:Deuterium; D005954:Glucosephosphate Dehydrogenase; D005560:Formate Dehydrogenases; D001221:Aspartate Carbamoyltransferase; D010650:Phenylalanine Ammonia-Lyase