title: Temperature and mortality among the elderly in the United States: a comparison of epidemiologic methods.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Time-series analyses have been used for decades to investigate time-varying environmental exposures. Recently, the case-crossover design has been applied to assess acute effects of air pollution. Our objective was to compare time-series and case-crossover analyses using varying referent periods (ie, unidirectional, ambidirectional, and time-stratified).
  
  
  METHODS
  We examined the association between temperature and cardiorespiratory mortality among the elderly population in the 20 largest metropolitan areas of the United States. Risks were estimated by season and geographic region in 1992. We obtained weather data from the National Climatic Data Center and mortality data from the Division of Vital Statistics. Conditional logistic regression (case-crossover) and Poisson regression (time-series) were used to estimate the increased risk of cardiorespiratory mortality associated with a 10 degrees F increase in daily temperature, accounting for dew-point temperature and other potential confounding factors.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In the time-stratified case-crossover analysis, the strongest associations were found in the summer; in the Southwest, Southeast, Northwest, Northeast, and Midwest, the odds ratios were 1.15 (95% confidence interval=1.07-1.24), 1.10 (0.96-1.27), 1.08 (0.92-1.26), 1.08 (1.02-1.15), and 1.01 (0.92-1.11), respectively. Mostly null or negative associations were found in the winter, spring, and fall. The ambidirectional case-crossover and the time-series analyses produced quantitatively similar results to those from the time-stratified analysis. The unidirectional analysis produced conflicting results.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Inferences from studies of weather and mortality using the ambidirectional or time-stratified case-crossover approaches and the time-series analyses are comparable and provide consistent findings in this study.
authors.affiliation: Departments of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins University, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland. rbasu@exponent.com
authors.forename: Rupa
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Basu
authors.forename: Francesca
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Dominici
authors.forename: Jonathan M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Samet
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D002947:Cities; D018592:Cross-Over Studies; D004781:Environmental Exposure / Q000009:adverse effects; D006331:Heart Diseases / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000209:etiology / Q000401:mortality; D006801:Humans; D016015:Logistic Models; D016017:Odds Ratio; D016012:Poisson Distribution; D012120:Respiration Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000209:etiology / Q000401:mortality; D012307:Risk Factors; D012621:Seasons; D013696:Temperature; D013997:Time Factors; D014481:United States / Q000453:epidemiology