title: Evaluation of the relationship between smoking during pregnancy and subgingival microbiota.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Numerous studies have shown that smoking negatively affects periodontal health. Hormonal changes, which occur during pregnancy have also been reported to have adverse effects on the periodontal tissues or indirectly through alterations in the subgingival bacterial flora. At present, no knowledge exists concerning possible effects of smoking on the composition of subgingival plaque in pregnancy. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the effects of smoking during pregnancy on the subgingival plaque bacteria most commonly associated with periodontal disease.
  
  
  METHODS
  A total number of 181 women were examined within 72 h post-partum. Smoking status was recorded by means of a self-reported questionnaire and the study population was divided into three groups; non-smokers, light smokers, and heavy smokers. In each woman, two subgingival plaque samples were obtained from mesio- or disto-buccal aspect of randomly selected one molar and one incisor tooth by sterile paperpoints. Clinical periodontal recordings comprising presence of dental plaque, bleeding on probing (BOP), and probing pocket depth (PPD) were performed at six sites per each tooth at all teeth. Plaque samples were analysed by checkerboard DNA-DNA hybridization with respect to 12 bacterial species. In all analyses, the individual subject was the computational unit. Thus, mean values for all clinical parameters were calculated and bacterial scores from each individual sample were averaged. Statistical methods included chi2 test, Kruskal-Wallis test and Mann-Whitney U-test.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Mean ages were similar in the study groups. Plaque, BOP and PPD recordings were lower in the heavy-smoker group, but the differences were not statistically significant (p>0.05). The detection rates and bacterial loads of the specific subgingival bacteria exhibited no significant differences between the groups. No correlation could be found between smoking status and detection rates and bacterial loads of various bacterial species.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The present findings suggest that smoking during pregnancy does not have a significant effect on the composition of subgingival plaque bacteria.
authors.affiliation: Department of Periodontology, School of Dentistry, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey. nurcan@bornova.ege.edu.tr
authors.forename: Nurcan
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Buduneli
authors.forename: Haluk
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Baylas
authors.forename: Eralp
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Buduneli
authors.forename: Oya
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Türkoğlu
authors.forename: Gunnar
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Dahlen
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D016009:Chi-Square Distribution; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D003773:Dental Plaque / Q000382:microbiology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D011247:Pregnancy; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects*; D018709:Statistics, Nonparametric