title: Information-processing deficits and cognitive dysfunction in panic disorder.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The plasticity of the startle reflex, including prepulse inhibition (PPI) and habituation, provides operational measures of information processing that are abnormal in several neuropsychiatric disorders characterized by deficits in suppression or inhibition of intrusive or irrelevant stimuli. Clinically, patients with panic disorder (PD) have been described as having difficulties in the inhibition of their response to sensory and cognitive events. Because such difficulties may be the result of failures in early stages of information processing, we hypothesized that startle reactivity, PPI and habituation are deficient in unmedicated patients with PD. Moreover, we tested whether there was a relation between startle reflex measures and dysfunctional cognition.
  
  
  METHODS
  Fourteen unmedicated patients with PD (7 men, 7 women) and 28 healthy comparison subjects (14 men, 14 women) were recruited. Acoustic startle reactivity, habituation and PPI (30-ms, 60-ms, 120-ms, 240-ms and 2000-ms interstimulus intervals) were assessed in the patients with PD and the age-matched and sex-matched healthy controls. These data for unmedicated patients with PD were compared with those for 24 medicated patients with PD. Moreover, dysfunctional cognition in patients with PD was measured using the Body Sensations Questionnaire.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Unmedicated patients with PD exhibited increased startle reactivity, reduced habituation and significantly reduced PPI in the 30-ms, 60-ms, 120-ms and 240-ms prepulse conditions. Furthermore, in unmedicated patients with PD, increased startle response and decreased habituation were correlated significantly with higher cognitive dysfunction scores, but this was not the case for PPI.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These data indicate that the early stages of sensory information processing are abnormal in patients with PD in the absence of medication. The observed deficits in PPI and habituation could reflect a more generalized difficulty in suppressing or gating information in PD. The correlation between cognitive symptoms and higher startle response and deficient habituation supports the hypothesis that subjects with PD have abnormalities in the early stages of information processing that lead to a cascade of downstream effects on cognition.
authors.affiliation: Department of Research, Psychiatric Services of Aargau Canton, Brugg, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Stephan
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Ludewig
authors.forename: Mark A
authors.initials: MA
authors.lastname: Geyer
authors.forename: Marcel
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Ramseier
authors.forename: Franz X
authors.initials: FX
authors.lastname: Vollenweider
authors.forename: Evelyne
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Rechsteiner
authors.forename: Katja
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Cattapan-Ludewig
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001921:Brain / Q000503:physiopathology*; D003072:Cognition Disorders / Q000150:complications* / Q000503:physiopathology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008606:Mental Processes / Q000502:physiology*; D016584:Panic Disorder / Q000150:complications*; D013216:Reflex, Startle / Q000502:physiology; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires