title: Familial cases of point mutations in the XIST promoter reveal a correlation between CTCF binding and pre-emptive choices of X chromosome inactivation.
abstract: The choice mechanisms that determine the future inactive X chromosome in somatic cells of female mammals involve the regulated expression of the XIST gene. A familial C(-43)G mutation in the XIST promoter results in skewing of X chromosome inactivation (XCI) towards the inactive X chromosome of heterozygous females, whereas a C(-43)A mutation found primarily in the active X chromosome results in the opposite skewing pattern. Both mutations point to the existence of a factor that might be responsible for the skewed patterns. Here we identify this factor as CTCF, a conserved protein with a 11 Zn-finger (ZF) domain that can mediate multiple sequence-specificity and interactions between DNA-bound CTCF molecules. We show that mouse and human Xist/XIST promoters contain one homologous CTCF-binding sequence with the matching dG-contacts, which in the human XIST include the -43 position within the DNase I footprint of CTCF. While the C(-43)A mutation abrogates CTCF binding, the C(-43)G mutation results in a dramatic increase in CTCF-binding efficiency by altering ZF-usage mode required for recognition of the altered dG-contacts of the mutant site. Thus, the skewing effect of the two -43C mutations correlates with their effects on CTCF binding. Finally, CTCF interacts with the XIST/Xist promoter only in female human and mouse cells. The interpretation that this reflected a preferential interaction with the promoter of the active Xist allele was confirmed in mouse fetal placenta. These observations are in keeping with the possibility that the choice of X chromosome inactivation reflects stabilization of a higher order chromatin conformation impinging on the CTCF-XIST promoter complex.
authors.affiliation: Molecular Pathology Section, Laboratory of Immunopathology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 5640 Fishers Lane, Twinbrook I Rm. 1417, Rockville, MD 20852, USA.
authors.forename: Elena M
authors.initials: EM
authors.lastname: Pugacheva
authors.forename: Vijay Kumar
authors.initials: VK
authors.lastname: Tiwari
authors.forename: Ziedulla
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Abdullaev
authors.forename: Alexander A
authors.initials: AA
authors.lastname: Vostrov
authors.forename: Patrick T
authors.initials: PT
authors.lastname: Flanagan
authors.forename: Wolfgang W
authors.initials: WW
authors.lastname: Quitschke
authors.forename: Dmitri I
authors.initials: DI
authors.lastname: Loukinov
authors.forename: Rolf
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Ohlsson
authors.forename: Victor V
authors.initials: VV
authors.lastname: Lobanenkov
mesh_terms: D000483:Alleles; D000818:Animals; D001483:Base Sequence; D000076246:CCCTC-Binding Factor; D002467:Cell Nucleus / Q000378:metabolism; D002843:Chromatin / Q000378:metabolism; D047369:Chromatin Immunoprecipitation; D041321:Chromosomes, Human, X; D019175:DNA Methylation; D004268:DNA-Binding Proteins / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism*; D003850:Deoxyribonuclease I / Q000378:metabolism; D004303:Dosage Compensation, Genetic; D005192:Family Health; D005260:Female; D006579:Heterozygote; D006801:Humans; D047468:Immunoprecipitation; D008297:Male; D051379:Mice; D008957:Models, Genetic; D008969:Molecular Sequence Data; D009154:Mutation; D010957:Plasmids / Q000378:metabolism; D017354:Point Mutation; D011401:Promoter Regions, Genetic; D011485:Protein Binding; D014176:Protein Biosynthesis; D011487:Protein Conformation; D017434:Protein Structure, Tertiary; D062085:RNA, Long Noncoding; D022661:RNA, Untranslated / Q000235:genetics*; D012097:Repressor Proteins / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism*; D012689:Sequence Homology, Nucleic Acid; D012737:Sex Factors; D014158:Transcription, Genetic; D016335:Zinc Fingers
chemical_list: D000076246:CCCTC-Binding Factor; C000619697:CTCF protein, human; D002843:Chromatin; C000619698:Ctcf protein, mouse; D004268:DNA-Binding Proteins; D062085:RNA, Long Noncoding; D022661:RNA, Untranslated; D012097:Repressor Proteins; C077885:XIST non-coding RNA; D003850:Deoxyribonuclease I