title: Cellular transplantation strategies for spinal cord injury and translational neurobiology.
abstract: Basic science advances in spinal cord injury and regeneration research have led to a variety of novel experimental therapeutics designed to promote functionally effective axonal regrowth and sprouting. Among these interventions are cell-based approaches involving transplantation of neural and non-neural tissue elements that have potential for restoring damaged neural pathways or reconstructing intraspinal synaptic circuitries by either regeneration or neuronal/glial replacement. Notably, some of these strategies (e.g., grafts of peripheral nerve tissue, olfactory ensheathing glia, activated macrophages, marrow stromal cells, myelin-forming oligodendrocyte precursors or stem cells, and fetal spinal cord tissue) have already been translated to the clinical arena, whereas others have imminent likelihood of bench-to-bedside application. Although this progress has generated considerable enthusiasm about treating what once was thought to be a totally incurable condition, there are many issues to be considered relative to treatment safety and efficacy. The following review reflects on different experimental applications of intraspinal transplantation with consideration of the underlying pathological, pathophysiological, functional, and neuroplastic responses to spinal trauma that such treatments may target along with related issues of procedural and biological safety. The discussion then moves to an overview of ongoing and completed clinical trials to date. The pros and cons of these endeavors are considered, as well as what has been learned from them. Attention is primarily directed at preclinical animal modeling and the importance of patterning clinical trials, as much as possible, according to laboratory experiences.
authors.affiliation: College of Medicine and McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, USA. reier@mbi.ufl.edu
authors.forename: Paul J
authors.initials: PJ
authors.lastname: Reier
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D017690:Cell Transplantation; D002986:Clinical Trials as Topic; D016332:Fetal Tissue Transplantation; D006801:Humans; D009186:Myelin Sheath / Q000502:physiology; D009416:Nerve Regeneration / Q000502:physiology; D009446:Neurobiology / Q000639:trends*; D009473:Neuronal Plasticity; D013116:Spinal Cord / Q000166:cytology / Q000473:pathology; D013119:Spinal Cord Injuries / Q000628:therapy*
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 2004 Oct;21(10):1371-83
references.pmid: 15672628
references.citation: J Neurosci. 1998 May 15;18(10):3803-15
references.pmid: 9570810
references.citation: Glia. 2000 May;30(3):209-18
references.pmid: 10756071
references.citation: Mol Med Today. 1997 Dec;3(12):554-61
references.pmid: 9449127
references.citation: Neurosci Lett. 1993 Jul 9;157(1):115-9
references.pmid: 8233021
references.citation: Neuropathology. 2003 Sep;23(3):169-80
references.pmid: 14570283
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002 Feb 19;99(4):2199-204
references.pmid: 11854516
references.citation: J Neurophysiol. 1995 Mar;73(3):1020-30
references.pmid: 7608752
references.citation: Brain Res. 2001 Jan 19;889(1-2):344-57
references.pmid: 11166728
references.citation: Neurobiol Dis. 2004 Aug;16(3):638-53
references.pmid: 15262276
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1998 Mar 31;95(7):3908-13
references.pmid: 9520466
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 1999 Aug;16(8):695-703
references.pmid: 10511242
references.citation: J Neurosurg. 2000 Oct;93(2 Suppl):266-75
references.pmid: 11012058
references.citation: Adv Neurol. 1988;47:361-85
references.pmid: 3278523
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1993 Sep;123(1):35-50
references.pmid: 8405278
references.citation: Prog Brain Res. 2002;137:83-95
references.pmid: 12440361
references.citation: Int J Dev Neurosci. 1993 Oct;11(5):603-12
references.pmid: 8116473
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002 Dec 24;99(26):17066-71
references.pmid: 12477938
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 2004 Apr;21(4):441-9
references.pmid: 15115593
references.citation: Glia. 2000 Dec;32(3):214-25
references.pmid: 11102963
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 2003 Aug;182(2):247-60
references.pmid: 12895437
references.citation: Neuroscientist. 2002 Oct;8(5):457-88
references.pmid: 12374430
references.citation: Neuron. 2000 Feb;25(2):425-35
references.pmid: 10719896
references.citation: J Spinal Cord Med. 2004;27(4):311-8
references.pmid: 15484661
references.citation: J Neurosci Res. 2000 Aug 15;61(4):364-70
references.pmid: 10931522
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 1995 Apr 27;332(17):1118-24
references.pmid: 7700284
references.citation: Exp Brain Res. 1999 May;126(1):93-108
references.pmid: 10333010
references.citation: FASEB J. 1996 Sep;10(11):1296-302
references.pmid: 8836043
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1997 Dec;148(2):495-501
references.pmid: 9417828
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1998 Jan;149(1):262-76
references.pmid: 9454636
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 1991 Summer;8(2):103-19
references.pmid: 1870134
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 2002 Oct;19(10):1231-49
references.pmid: 12427331
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 2002 Jun;19(6):787-800
references.pmid: 12165138
references.citation: Neurologist. 2003 Jan;9(1):1-15
references.pmid: 12801427
references.citation: Science. 1979 Jun 8;204(4397):1117-9
references.pmid: 451560
references.citation: Curr Opin Neurobiol. 1998 Dec;8(6):800-7
references.pmid: 9914245
references.citation: J Neurosci. 1998 Dec 15;18(24):10514-24
references.pmid: 9852589
references.citation: Cell Transplant. 2002;11(6):593-613
references.pmid: 12428749
references.citation: Phys Ther. 2000 Aug;80(8):808-17
references.pmid: 10911417
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1974 Sep;44(3):424-39
references.pmid: 4621072
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 2002 Oct;177(2):349-59
references.pmid: 12429182
references.citation: J Spinal Cord Med. 1999 Summer;22(2):119-24
references.pmid: 10826269
references.citation: Mol Cell Neurosci. 2001 Mar;17(3):471-87
references.pmid: 11273643
references.citation: J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2002 Jul;61(7):623-33
references.pmid: 12125741
references.citation: Glia. 2002 Sep;39(3):229-36
references.pmid: 12203389
references.citation: NeuroRehabilitation. 2003;18(4):339-51
references.pmid: 14757930
references.citation: Brain Res Bull. 2002 Apr;57(6):827-32
references.pmid: 12031280
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 2003 Aug;20(8):707-16
references.pmid: 12965050
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 2003 Sep;142(1-2):10-6
references.pmid: 14512160
references.citation: Neuropharmacology. 2000 Mar 3;39(5):777-87
references.pmid: 10699444
references.citation: Glia. 1997 Mar;19(3):247-58
references.pmid: 9063731
references.citation: Annu Rev Neurosci. 1981;4:127-62
references.pmid: 7013633
references.citation: J Neurosci. 1998 Jan 15;18(2):763-78
references.pmid: 9425018
references.citation: Neurobiol Dis. 2001 Feb;8(1):11-8
references.pmid: 11162236
references.citation: Brain. 2002 Jan;125(Pt 1):14-21
references.pmid: 11834589
references.citation: Brain Res Bull. 1998 Jun;46(3):175-87
references.pmid: 9667810
references.citation: Cent Nerv Syst Trauma. 1984 Winter;1(2):117-29
references.pmid: 6545680
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2003 Feb 1;23(3):727-31
references.pmid: 12574399
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1999 Mar 30;96(7):4089-94
references.pmid: 10097168
references.citation: Behav Brain Res. 2003 Sep 15;144(1-2):143-56
references.pmid: 12946605
references.citation: Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2001 Dec 15;26(24 Suppl):S137-45
references.pmid: 11805621
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 2001 Sep;18(9):931-45
references.pmid: 11565604
references.citation: Science. 2000 Dec 1;290(5497):1775-9
references.pmid: 11099418
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 2000 Oct;17(10):915-25
references.pmid: 11063057
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1992 Apr;116(1):40-51
references.pmid: 1559563
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1996 Jan;137(1):1-14
references.pmid: 8566201
references.citation: Science. 2002 Feb 8;295(5557):1029-31
references.pmid: 11834824
references.citation: Anat Rec B New Anat. 2003 Mar;271(1):71-6
references.pmid: 12619088
references.citation: Acta Neurobiol Exp (Wars). 1996;56(1):449-63
references.pmid: 8787206
references.citation: Cell Prolif. 2004 Feb;37(1):55-65
references.pmid: 14871237
references.citation: Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2002 Apr 15;27(8):887-92
references.pmid: 11935115
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1995 Nov;136(1):64-72
references.pmid: 7589335
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 2000 Sep;17(9):781-8
references.pmid: 11011818
references.citation: Nature. 2000 Oct 26;407(6807):963-70
references.pmid: 11069169
references.citation: Lancet. 2004 May 1;363(9419):1432-7
references.pmid: 15121406
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 2002 Feb;19(2):239-56
references.pmid: 11893025
references.citation: Eur J Neurosci. 2000 Jul;12(7):2414-24
references.pmid: 10947820
references.citation: J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 1996 Mar;55(3):280-9
references.pmid: 8786386
references.citation: Spinal Cord. 1998 Dec;36(12):811-7
references.pmid: 9881728
references.citation: Neurosci Res. 1987 Oct;5(1):68-73
references.pmid: 3431751
references.citation: Nat Neurosci. 2004 Mar;7(3):269-77
references.pmid: 14966523
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1996 Nov;142(1):128-43
references.pmid: 8912904
references.citation: J Neural Transplant Plast. 1995;5(4):233-43
references.pmid: 7578439
references.citation: Prog Neurobiol. 2001 Dec;65(5):489-96
references.pmid: 11689283
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1997 Dec;148(2):453-63
references.pmid: 9417825
references.citation: J Exp Biol. 1990 Oct;153:199-224
references.pmid: 2280221
references.citation: Nat Rev Neurosci. 2003 Sep;4(9):703-13
references.pmid: 12951563
references.citation: Trends Neurosci. 2003 Oct;26(10):555-63
references.pmid: 14522149
references.citation: Restor Neurol Neurosci. 1991 Jan 1;2(4):309-25
references.pmid: 21551618
references.citation: Anat Rec B New Anat. 2003 Mar;271(1):49-60
references.pmid: 12619086
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 2001 Aug;108(4):591-9
references.pmid: 11518733
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2001 Dec 1;21(23):9334-44
references.pmid: 11717367
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2001 Jun 1;21(11):3740-8
references.pmid: 11356861
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1992 Jan;115(1):177-88
references.pmid: 1370221
references.citation: Nat Med. 1997 Jan;3(1):73-6
references.pmid: 8986744
references.citation: Behav Brain Res. 1993 Jul 30;56(1):59-76
references.pmid: 7691077
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 2002 Jun;19(6):753-61
references.pmid: 12165135
references.citation: Dev Biol. 1993 Mar;156(1):34-48
references.pmid: 7680631
references.citation: Ann Neurol. 1994 Feb;35(2):172-80
references.pmid: 8109898
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 2003 Feb;20(2):179-93
references.pmid: 12675971
references.citation: Exp Brain Res. 1988;73(2):329-42
references.pmid: 3215309
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1991 Nov;114(2):193-205
references.pmid: 1748194
references.citation: J Neurosci Res. 2000 Aug 1;61(3):288-94
references.pmid: 10900075
references.citation: Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1993 Jun;89(3):177-86
references.pmid: 7686850
references.citation: Neurosurgery. 2004 Apr;54(4):950-5; discussion 955
references.pmid: 15046663
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 2002 Jan;173(1):153-67
references.pmid: 11771948
references.citation: Clin Neuropharmacol. 2001 Sep-Oct;24(5):254-64
references.pmid: 11586110
references.citation: Cell Tissue Res. 1983;230(1):15-35
references.pmid: 6850760
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1985 Apr;88(1):1-12
references.pmid: 3979504
references.citation: J Comp Neurol. 1988 Mar 22;269(4):612-7
references.pmid: 3372730
references.citation: J Neurosci Res. 1997 Dec 1;50(5):798-808
references.pmid: 9418967
references.citation: Muscle Nerve. 1994 Dec;17(12):1466-8
references.pmid: 7969249
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1995 Oct;135(2):123-45
references.pmid: 7589324
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 1995 Aug;61(1):89-96
references.pmid: 7560018
references.citation: Prog Brain Res. 2002;138:401-9
references.pmid: 12432780
references.citation: Brain Pathol. 1995 Oct;5(4):451-57
references.pmid: 8974628
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 1997 Apr;14(4):235-48
references.pmid: 9151772
references.citation: Pain. 1996 Dec;68(2-3):185-94
references.pmid: 9121805
references.citation: Neuroscientist. 2001 Aug;7(4):325-39
references.pmid: 11488398
references.citation: Adv Neurol. 1993;59:75-89
references.pmid: 8420126
references.citation: Sci Am. 1999 Sep;281(3):64-73
references.pmid: 10467750
references.citation: Cell Transplant. 1998 Mar-Apr;7(2):187-96
references.pmid: 9588600
references.citation: J Neurosci Res. 2002 May 15;68(4):406-23
references.pmid: 11992467
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 2001 Sep;171(1):153-69
references.pmid: 11520130
references.citation: Chin Med J (Engl). 2003 Oct;116(10):1488-91
references.pmid: 14570607
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 1999 Sep 23;341(13):992-6
references.pmid: 10498498
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 2003 Nov;184(1):97-113
references.pmid: 14637084
references.citation: Nat Rev Neurosci. 2001 Apr;2(4):263-73
references.pmid: 11283749
references.citation: Science. 1981 Nov 20;214(4523):931-3
references.pmid: 6171034
references.citation: J Neurocytol. 1994 Jul;23(7):433-52
references.pmid: 7964912
references.citation: Science. 2002 Aug 23;297(5585):1299
references.pmid: 12193778
references.citation: Brain Res. 1982 Apr 8;237(1):147-62
references.pmid: 6176289
references.citation: Mol Psychiatry. 2002;7(1):9-11
references.pmid: 11803438
references.citation: Int J Dev Neurosci. 1993 Oct;11(5):641-9
references.pmid: 8116476
references.citation: Nat Biotechnol. 2001 Dec;19(12):1129-33
references.pmid: 11731781
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1985 Apr;88(1):108-22
references.pmid: 3979505
references.citation: Science. 1999 Jul 30;285(5428):754-6
references.pmid: 10427001
references.citation: Exp Brain Res. 2000 Jul;133(2):233-41
references.pmid: 10968224
references.citation: J Neurosci. 1994 Jul;14(7):4050-63
references.pmid: 8027762
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 1999 Jun;16(6):533-41
references.pmid: 10391369
references.citation: Physiol Genomics. 2001 Dec 21;7(2):201-13
references.pmid: 11773606
references.citation: J Spinal Cord Med. 1999 Fall;22(3):173-81
references.pmid: 10685382
references.citation: Lancet Neurol. 2003 Jul;2(7):437-45
references.pmid: 12849125
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 2003 Jan;20(1):1-16
references.pmid: 12614584
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1991 Nov;114(2):254-7
references.pmid: 1748200
references.citation: Science. 1997 Sep 26;277(5334):2000-2
references.pmid: 9302296
references.citation: Adv Neurol. 1988;47:87-138
references.pmid: 3278533
references.citation: Nat Rev Neurosci. 2004 Feb;5(2):146-56
references.pmid: 14735117
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1997 Dec;148(2):523-43
references.pmid: 9417830
references.citation: J Neurosci Res. 2003 May 1;72(3):343-51
references.pmid: 12692901
references.citation: Neurosci Res. 1990 Jun;8(2):124-30
references.pmid: 2170872
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 2001 Sep;171(1):11-21
references.pmid: 11520117
references.citation: J Comp Neurol. 1997 Jan 20;377(3):443-64
references.pmid: 8989657
references.citation: J Comp Neurol. 2000 Apr 10;419(3):286-96
references.pmid: 10723005
references.citation: Nat Med. 2004 Jan;10(1):93-7
references.pmid: 14702638
references.citation: Rev Neurol (Paris). 1997 Sep;153(8-9):521-5
references.pmid: 9684002
references.citation: Nat Med. 1998 Jul;4(7):814-21
references.pmid: 9662373
references.citation: Nat Med. 1999 Aug;5(8):943-6
references.pmid: 10426320
references.citation: Acad Radiol. 2002 Aug;9 Suppl 2:S332-5
references.pmid: 12188266
references.citation: Cell Transplant. 2001;10(8):661-4
references.pmid: 11814107
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1997 Dec;148(2):502-22
references.pmid: 9417829
references.citation: J Physiol. 2001 May 15;533(Pt 1):83-9
references.pmid: 11351016
references.citation: Prog Brain Res. 2000;128:265-72
references.pmid: 11105686
references.citation: Acta Neuropathol. 1984;64(3):203-12
references.pmid: 6496037
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1993 Sep;123(1):17-34
references.pmid: 8405276
references.citation: J Appl Physiol (1985). 2003 Feb;94(2):795-810
references.pmid: 12531916
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1999 Aug;158(2):351-65
references.pmid: 10415142
references.citation: Science. 2000 Dec 1;290(5497):1779-82
references.pmid: 11099419
references.citation: J Child Neurol. 2001 Jan;16(1):2-9
references.pmid: 11225952
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 2004 Apr;21(4):383-93
references.pmid: 15115588
references.citation: Science. 1999 Apr 2;284(5411):143-7
references.pmid: 10102814
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 2003 Nov;184(1):237-46
references.pmid: 14637095
references.citation: Eur J Neurosci. 2001 Jan;13(2):257-68
references.pmid: 11168530
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2001 Nov 1;21(21):8680-9
references.pmid: 11606656
references.citation: Prog Brain Res. 2002;137:125-39
references.pmid: 12440364
references.citation: J Neurobiol. 1995 Oct;28(2):171-89
references.pmid: 8537823
references.citation: Nat Med. 2004 Jun;10(6):570-3
references.pmid: 15170195
references.citation: Nature. 2002 Apr 4;416(6880):542-5
references.pmid: 11932747
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 2000 Nov 1;111(1-2):210-4
references.pmid: 11063840
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1996 Apr;138(2):261-76
references.pmid: 8620925
references.citation: Exp Brain Res. 1990;80(1):1-11
references.pmid: 2358020
references.citation: Science. 1987 Aug 7;237(4815):642-5
references.pmid: 3603044
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1997 Jun;145(2 Pt 1):397-411
references.pmid: 9217076
references.citation: Nature. 1997 Dec 18-25;390(6661):680-3
references.pmid: 9414159
references.citation: J Appl Physiol (1985). 1998 Nov;85(5):1786-92
references.pmid: 9804582
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2002 Apr 1;22(7):2690-700
references.pmid: 11923434
references.citation: Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1998 Jan;79(1):107-12
references.pmid: 9440427
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1995 Dec;136(2):149-61
references.pmid: 7498405
references.citation: Neuroreport. 2004 May 19;15(7):1105-8
references.pmid: 15129154
references.citation: Nat Med. 2004 Jun;10(6):610-6
references.pmid: 15156204
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2004 Sep 29;24(39):8562-76
references.pmid: 15456830
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2003 Sep 24;23(25):8682-91
references.pmid: 14507967
references.citation: J Neurosurg. 2002 Mar;96(2 Suppl):197-205
references.pmid: 12450283
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2002 Aug 1;22(15):6670-81
references.pmid: 12151546
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 Jun 8;101(23):8786-90
references.pmid: 15173585
references.citation: Spinal Cord. 2002 Mar;40(3):101-9
references.pmid: 11859436
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 2002 Oct;177(2):575-80
references.pmid: 12429203
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2004 Mar 3;24(9):2090-101
references.pmid: 14999060
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 1998 Jul;15(7):459-72
references.pmid: 9674550
references.citation: J Neurophysiol. 1992 Nov;68(5):1473-86
references.pmid: 1479425
references.citation: Ann Emerg Med. 1993 Jun;22(6):987-92
references.pmid: 8503537
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 2004 Apr;21(4):429-40
references.pmid: 15115592
references.citation: Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2003 Oct;82(10 Suppl):S38-49
references.pmid: 14502038
references.citation: J Comp Neurol. 2004 May 17;473(1):1-15
references.pmid: 15067714
references.citation: Lancet Neurol. 2002 Sep;1(5):269
references.pmid: 12849411
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 2003 May;20(5):477-82
references.pmid: 12803979
references.citation: Prog Brain Res. 2002;137:401-6
references.pmid: 12440382
references.citation: Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2003 Jan;24(1):7-12
references.pmid: 12498724
references.citation: Adv Neurol. 1993;59:175-84
references.pmid: 8420104
references.citation: Neurobiol Dis. 2004 Apr;15(3):415-36
references.pmid: 15056450
references.citation: J Neurosurg. 1992 Feb;76(2):261-74
references.pmid: 1730955
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2001 Feb 1;21(3):944-50
references.pmid: 11157080
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 1993 Spring;10(1):19-24
references.pmid: 8320729
references.citation: Neurosci Lett. 1991 Mar 11;124(1):44-8
references.pmid: 1857542
references.citation: Inj Prev. 2002 Dec;8 Suppl 4:IV33-6
references.pmid: 12460955
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 2001 Jan;167(1):27-39
references.pmid: 11161590
references.citation: J Neurobiol. 1995 Oct;28(2):190-201
references.pmid: 8537824
references.citation: Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol. 1978 May-Jun;4(3):165-76
references.pmid: 360094
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1997 Sep;147(1):172-82
references.pmid: 9294414
references.citation: Pain. 1998 Mar;75(1):141-155
references.pmid: 9539683
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1992 Sep;117(3):287-98
references.pmid: 1397165
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 2004 Apr;21(4):375-82
references.pmid: 15115587
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2002 Jan 1;22(1):315-23
references.pmid: 11756515
references.citation: Cell Transplant. 1997 May-Jun;6(3):339-46
references.pmid: 9171166
references.citation: J Neurosci Res. 1996 Sep 01;45(5):588-97
references.pmid: 8875323
references.citation: Nat Neurosci. 2000 Jun;3(6):537-44
references.pmid: 10816308
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 1994 Aug;11(4):369-77
references.pmid: 7837278
references.citation: Nat Rev Neurosci. 2001 Nov;2(11):831-4
references.pmid: 11715059
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2003 Mar 15;23(6):2494-501
references.pmid: 12657710
references.citation: Nat Rev Neurosci. 2001 May;2(5):365-9
references.pmid: 11331920
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 2001 Oct;18(10):1091-105
references.pmid: 11686495
references.citation: Neuroscience. 1983 Oct;10(2):521-43
references.pmid: 6633870
references.citation: Dev Neurosci. 1992;14(2):73-84
references.pmid: 1396177
references.citation: Zh Vopr Neirokhir Im N N Burdenko. 1994 Jul-Sep;(3):27-9
references.pmid: 7985441
references.citation: J Neurochem. 2001 Nov;79(4):804-15
references.pmid: 11723173
references.citation: Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 1996 Apr;74(4):518-30
references.pmid: 8828897
references.citation: Restor Neurol Neurosci. 2002;20(5):189-218
references.pmid: 12515895
references.citation: Eur J Neurosci. 2003 Jul;18(2):412-22
references.pmid: 12887423
references.citation: J Neurophysiol. 1999 Sep;82(3):1381-9
references.pmid: 10482756
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 1992 Summer;9(2):123-6; discussion 126-8
references.pmid: 1404425
references.citation: J Neurosci. 1997 Jul 15;17(14):5395-406
references.pmid: 9204923
references.citation: J Neurosci Res. 1998 Jul 1;53(1):51-65
references.pmid: 9670992
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1992 Apr;116(1):1-12
references.pmid: 1559561
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1991 Jul;113(1):1-9
references.pmid: 2044676
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1999 Mar;156(1):191-204
references.pmid: 10192790
references.citation: Neuroreport. 2001 Aug 8;12(11):2303-9
references.pmid: 11496100
references.citation: Ann Neurol. 1991 Feb;29(2):115-23
references.pmid: 2012382
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 2004 Feb;21(2):195-204
references.pmid: 15000760
references.citation: Nat Rev Neurosci. 2001 May;2(5):369-75
references.pmid: 11331921
references.citation: Acta Neuropathol. 1982;57(1):59-69
references.pmid: 7090743
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 1997 Nov;14(11):875-84
references.pmid: 9421458
references.citation: Glia. 1998 Nov;24(3):329-37
references.pmid: 9775984
references.citation: Brain. 2002 Jan;125(Pt 1):2-3
references.pmid: 11834587
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 1993 Apr;120(2):264-76
references.pmid: 8491282
references.citation: Ann Neurol. 2003 Apr;53(4):454-68
references.pmid: 12666113
references.citation: Science. 1996 Jul 26;273(5274):510-3
references.pmid: 8662542
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 2002 Oct;19(10):1203-16
references.pmid: 12427329
references.citation: Neurosci Lett. 2002 Jul 19;327(2):133-7
references.pmid: 12098653
references.citation: Eur J Neurosci. 1998 Feb;10(2):607-21
references.pmid: 9749723
references.citation: Histol Histopathol. 1995 Apr;10(2):503-7
references.pmid: 7599444
references.citation: J Neurosci Res. 2002 Oct 1;70(1):65-81
references.pmid: 12237865
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 2000 Dec;166(2):213-26
references.pmid: 11085887
references.citation: J Spinal Cord Med. 2003 Winter;26(4):323-8
references.pmid: 14992331
references.citation: Glia. 2003 Jan 15;41(2):191-8
references.pmid: 12509809
references.citation: Neuron. 2000 Oct;28(1):15-8
references.pmid: 11086978
references.citation: Brain Res Bull. 1989 Jan;22(1):47-52
references.pmid: 2540887
references.citation: Eur J Neurosci. 1999 Oct;11(10):3648-58
references.pmid: 10564372
references.citation: FASEB J. 2004 Feb;18(2):335-7
references.pmid: 14657003
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2004 Apr 14;24(15):3752-61
references.pmid: 15084655
references.citation: J Exp Biol. 1987 Sep;132:5-19
references.pmid: 3323406
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2000 Sep 1;20(17):6421-30
references.pmid: 10964948
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2002 Jul 15;22(14):6083-91
references.pmid: 12122069
references.citation: Nat Med. 1999 Dec;5(12):1410-2
references.pmid: 10581084
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 1992 Summer;9(2):129-31; discussion 131-4
references.pmid: 1404426
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2000 May 23;97(11):6126-31
references.pmid: 10823956
references.citation: Neuroreport. 2000 Sep 11;11(13):3001-5
references.pmid: 11006983
references.citation: Exp Neurol. 2001 Jan;167(1):48-58
references.pmid: 11161592
references.citation: Neurochem Res. 2003 Nov;28(11):1659-76
references.pmid: 14584820
references.citation: Adv Physiol Educ. 2002 Dec;26(1-4):238-55
references.pmid: 12443996
references.citation: Prog Brain Res. 2002;137:49-70
references.pmid: 12440359
references.citation: Nat Biotechnol. 2000 Sep;18(9):949-53
references.pmid: 10973214
references.citation: J Neurosci Res. 2004 Apr 15;76(2):232-43
references.pmid: 15048921
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 2001 Sep;18(9):911-29
references.pmid: 11565603
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2000 Jul 1;20(13):5144-52
references.pmid: 10864971
references.citation: Nature. 2002 Apr 11;416(6881):636-40
references.pmid: 11948352
references.citation: Eur J Neurosci. 2000 Sep;12(9):3079-86
references.pmid: 10998091
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2001 Mar 13;98(6):3513-8
references.pmid: 11248109
references.citation: Eur J Neurosci. 1999 May;11(5):1723-40
references.pmid: 10215926
references.citation: Exp Brain Res. 1990;81(1):25-34
references.pmid: 2394228
references.citation: Neuroreport. 1992 Dec;3(12):1045-8
references.pmid: 1493215
references.citation: Brain Res. 2000 Jan 31;854(1-2):70-8
references.pmid: 10784108
references.citation: J Neurol. 1994 Dec;242(1 Suppl 1):S36-9
references.pmid: 7699407
references.citation: Brain Pathol. 1995 Oct;5(4):407-13
references.pmid: 8974623
references.citation: Adv Neurol. 1997;72:305-15
references.pmid: 8993707
references.citation: Annu Rev Neurosci. 1984;7:279-308
references.pmid: 6370080
references.citation: Prog Brain Res. 2002;137:257-73
references.pmid: 12440372
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 1999 Sep 23;341(13):988-92
references.pmid: 10498497
references.citation: Exp Brain Res. 1991;84(3):561-8
references.pmid: 1864327
references.citation: Exp Brain Res. 1988;73(2):343-53
references.pmid: 3215310
references.citation: J Neurotrauma. 2001 Aug;18(8):743-56
references.pmid: 11526981