title: The effects of prenatal stress on temperament and problem behavior of 27-month-old toddlers.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To examine, in a prospective study, the influence of prenatal stress on infant temperament and problem behavior.
  
  
  METHODS
  Self-report data on stress and anxiety, and levels of cortisol in saliva were collected from nulli-parous women during pregnancy. Temperament of the child was measured at 27 months by parent report on the Infant Characteristics Questionnaire. Behavior of the child was assessed by direct observation during the administration of the Bayley Scales of Development 2-30, and by parent report on the Child Behavior Checklist 2-3.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Complete data were available for 103 healthy toddlers. Logistic regression analyses were performed and results were adjusted for possible prenatal, perinatal and postnatal confounders. Perceived stress during pregnancy was a predictor of lower levels of restless/disruptive temperament (OR=0.77), more total behavioral problems (OR=1.17), and more externalizing behavioral problems (OR=1.12) in 2-year-olds. Fear of bearing a handicapped child was a predictor of higher levels of restless/disruptive temperament (OR=1.39) and more attention regulation problems in toddlers (OR=1.46).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Increased levels of maternal prenatal stress appear to be associated with temperamental and behavioral problems in toddlers.
authors.affiliation: Dept. of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Utrecht University Medical Center and the Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Barbara M
authors.initials: BM
authors.lastname: Gutteling
authors.forename: Carolina
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: de Weerth
authors.forename: Sophie H N
authors.initials: SH
authors.lastname: Willemsen-Swinkels
authors.forename: Anja C
authors.initials: AC
authors.lastname: Huizink
authors.forename: Eduard J H
authors.initials: EJ
authors.lastname: Mulder
authors.forename: Gerard H A
authors.initials: GH
authors.lastname: Visser
authors.forename: Jan K
authors.initials: JK
authors.lastname: Buitelaar
mesh_terms: D002653:Child Behavior Disorders / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology*; D002675:Child, Preschool; D005260:Female; D005500:Follow-Up Studies; D006801:Humans; D009035:Mothers / Q000523:psychology*; D011247:Pregnancy; D011297:Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects; D011446:Prospective Studies; D012720:Severity of Illness Index; D013315:Stress, Psychological / Q000453:epidemiology*; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D013694:Temperament