title: Diagnosis and management of acute pyelonephritis in adults.
abstract: There are approximately 250,000 cases of acute pyelonephritis each year, resulting in more than 100,000 hospitalizations. The most common etiologic cause is infection with Escherichia coli. The combination of the leukocyte esterase test and the nitrite test (with either test proving positive) has a sensitivity of 75 to 84 percent and a specificity of 82 to 98 percent for urinary tract infection. Urine cultures are positive in 90 percent of patients with acute pyelonephritis, and cultures should be obtained before antibiotic therapy is initiated. The use of blood cultures should be reserved for patients with an uncertain diagnosis, those who are immunocompromised, and those who are suspected of having hematogenous infections. Outpatient oral antibiotic therapy with a fluoroquinolone is successful in most patients with mild uncomplicated pyelonephritis. Other effective alternatives include extended-spectrum penicillins, amoxicillin-clavulanate potassium, cephalosporins, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Indications for inpatient treatment include complicated infections, sepsis, persistent vomiting, failed outpatient treatment, or extremes of age. In hospitalized patients, intravenous treatment is recommended with a fluoroquinolone, aminoglycoside with or without ampicillin, or a third-generation cephalosporin. The standard duration of therapy is seven to 14 days. Urine culture should be repeated one to two weeks after completion of antibiotic therapy. Treatment failure may be caused by resistant organisms, underlying anatomic/functional abnormalities, or immunosuppressed states. Lack of response should prompt repeat blood and urine cultures and, possibly, imaging studies. A change in antibiotics or surgical intervention may be required.
authors.affiliation: Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73104, USA. kalyanakrishnan-ramakrishnan@ouhsc.edu
authors.forename: Kalyanakrishnan
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Ramakrishnan
authors.forename: Dewey C
authors.initials: DC
authors.lastname: Scheid
mesh_terms: D000208:Acute Disease; D000465:Algorithms; D000553:Ambulatory Care; D000890:Anti-Infective Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D006760:Hospitalization; D006801:Humans; D011704:Pyelonephritis / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000382:microbiology; D012307:Risk Factors; D014556:Urine / Q000382:microbiology
chemical_list: D000890:Anti-Infective Agents