title: Effect of volcanic gas exposure on urine, blood, and serum chemistry.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  This pilot study tested the hypothesis that aluminium (Al), rubidium (Rb), arsenic (As), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), fluorine (F), and chlorine (Cl), which are all known to be present in volcanic emissions, may be useful biological markers for occupational gas exposure in volcanologists.
  
  
  METHODS
  Ten human subjects were exposed to fumarole gases on White Island, New Zealand, for approximately 20 minutes. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) exposure was recorded by personal monitoring tubes. Pre- and post-exposure urine, blood and serum samples (collected using standard protocols) were analysed in the pathology laboratory for trace element and halogen content.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Average personal exposure was measured at <75 ppm SO2 and calculated at approximately 25 ppm HCl, approximately 8 ppm hydrogen fluoride (HF), approximately 1 ppm Al, approximately 0.1 ppb Rb and approximately 4 ppb Pb. These concentrations almost certainly exceed those usually found in occupational exposure settings. Advanced levels of urinary Al and Rb were found following gas exposure and were statistically significant in the population at p<0.005 and p<0.001, respectively. The other chemical elements that were analysed (urinary Cl, F, and Hg; blood Pb, and serum Al) did not show such patterns.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  It is possible that urinary Al and Rb may be useful markers for exposure, a hypothesis which should be followed up in future work.
authors.affiliation: Natural Hazards Research Centre, Department of Geological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand. michaeldurand2004@yahoo.co.uk
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Durand
authors.forename: Chris
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Florkowsk
authors.forename: Peter
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: George
authors.forename: Trevor
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Walmsley
authors.forename: Phil
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Weinstein
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000393:Air Pollutants / Q000097:blood* / Q000652:urine*; D000535:Aluminum / Q000097:blood / Q000652:urine; D001151:Arsenic / Q000097:blood / Q000652:urine; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000097:blood / Q000652:urine; D002713:Chlorine / Q000097:blood / Q000652:urine; D004784:Environmental Monitoring; D005461:Fluorine / Q000097:blood / Q000652:urine; D006801:Humans; D019570:Inhalation Exposure; D007854:Lead / Q000097:blood / Q000652:urine; D008628:Mercury / Q000097:blood / Q000652:urine; D008670:Metals / Q000097:blood* / Q000652:urine*; D010865:Pilot Projects; D012413:Rubidium / Q000097:blood / Q000652:urine; D018707:Volcanic Eruptions
chemical_list: D000393:Air Pollutants; D015415:Biomarkers; D008670:Metals; D005461:Fluorine; D007854:Lead; D002713:Chlorine; D000535:Aluminum; D008628:Mercury; D012413:Rubidium; D001151:Arsenic