title: Pedal symphalangism in modern American and Japanese skeletons.
abstract: Pedal symphalangism is a surprisingly common heritable trait of the human foot. In individuals exhibiting the trait, the joint between the intermediate and distal phalanges of one or more lateral toes never develops, resulting in toes with two phalanges rather than three. This study was undertaken to explore variation in the frequency of pedal symphalangism among groups with widely different geographic ancestry, and to consider the applicability of this trait to skeletal biological distance studies. A total of 460 Euro-American, 191 African-American and 99 Japanese skeletons were examined for presence of pedal symphalangism. The American individuals date to the first half of the 20th c, while the Japanese individuals date to the late 19th and early 20th c. Although the country of ancestry is unknown for most of the American individuals, the Euro-Americans appear to be largely northern European, with roots in Germany, Ireland and Scandinavia, while the African-Americans are primarily descendants of slaves with roots in west African countries such as Nigeria, Benin, Togo, Ghana and Sierra Leone. Frequencies of fifth toe pedal symphalangism were calculated and compared among all three samples and found to be significantly higher in modern Japanese (83.7%) than in either Euro-Americans (46.4%) or African-Americans (44.0%). The Euro- and African-American frequencies were statistically indistinguishable for symphalangism of the fifth toe. In the fourth toe, however, the opposite result was found. The African-American frequency (7.9%) was significantly higher than the Euro-American frequency (2.6%), while no difference was found between the African-Americans and Japanese (11.7%). Since fourth toe pedal symphalangism has never been observed in the absence of fifth toe involvement, some of the same genes are clearly involved in producing the trait in both toes. However, differences in the pattern of fourth and fifth toe expression among the three groups identified in this study suggest that additional genetic or developmental factors may play a role in expression of pedal symphalangism in each of the toes.
authors.affiliation: Department of Sociology and Anthropology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA. dtcase@server.sasw.ncsu.edu
authors.forename: D T
authors.initials: DT
authors.lastname: Case
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Heilman
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D044383:Black People; D002648:Child; D005260:Female; D005529:Foot Bones / Q000002:abnormalities*; D005843:Geography; D006801:Humans; D007564:Japan; D008297:Male; D012016:Reference Values; D014034:Toes / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D014481:United States; D044465:White People; D001741:Black or African American