title: Biomechanical model of the xylem vessels in vascular plants.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The xylem, or water transport system, in vascular plants adopts different morphologies that appear sequentially during growth phases. This paper proposes an explanation of these morphologies based on engineering design principles.
  
  
  METHODS
  Using microscopic observations of the different growth stages, an engineering analysis of the xylem vessels as a closed cylinder under internal pressure is carried out adopting pressure vessel design concepts.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The analysis suggests that the xylem vessel structural morphology follows the 'constant strength' design principle, i.e. all of the material within the wall of the xylem is loaded equally to its maximum allowable stress capacity, and the amount of material used is therefore systematically minimized. The analysis shows that the different structural designs of the xylem vessel walls (annular, helical, reticulate and pitted) all quantitatively follow the constant strength design principle.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The results are discussed with respect to growth and differentiation. It is concluded that the morphology of the xylem vessel through the different phases of growth seems to follow optimal engineering design principles.
authors.affiliation: Lebanese American University, Byblos, PO Box 166864, Beirut, Lebanon. gkaram@lau.edu.lb
authors.forename: Gebran N
authors.initials: GN
authors.lastname: Karam
mesh_terms: D001692:Biological Transport; D001696:Biomechanical Phenomena; D008954:Models, Biological; D018521:Plant Physiological Phenomena; D010944:Plants / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D014867:Water
chemical_list: D014867:Water