title: Iron, zinc, and alcohol consumption and mortality from cardiovascular diseases: the Iowa Women's Health Study.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The relation between iron status and atherosclerosis has long been a topic of debate.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  We examined associations of cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality with dietary intakes of iron (a possible prooxidant), zinc (a possible antioxidant), and alcohol (a disruptor of iron homeostasis).
  
  
  METHODS
  Postmenopausal women (n = 34 492) aged 55-69 y at baseline, who completed a food-frequency questionnaire, were followed for CVD mortality over 15 y.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Among women who consumed >/=10 g alcohol/d, after adjustment for CVD risk factors in a model that contained dietary heme iron, nonheme iron, and zinc intakes, dietary heme iron showed a positive association, dietary nonheme iron showed a U-shaped association, and dietary zinc showed an inverse association with CVD mortality. For example, the relative risks (RRs) for categories of dietary heme iron were 1.0, 1.46, 1.52, 1.73, and 2.47 (P for trend = 0.04); corresponding RRs for dietary nonheme iron were 1.0, 0.93, 0.63, 0.83, and 1.20 (P for quadratic term = 0.02). The corresponding RRs for dietary zinc were 1.0, 0.61, 0.59, 0.57, and 0.37 (P for trend = 0.07). In an analysis restricted to those who consumed >/=30 g alcohol/d, the risk gradients strengthened.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our results suggest that a higher intake of heme iron might be harmful, whereas a higher intake of zinc might be beneficial in relation to CVD mortality in the presence of a trigger that can disturb iron homeostasis, such as alcohol consumption.
authors.affiliation: Division of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
authors.forename: Duk-Hee
authors.initials: DH
authors.lastname: Lee
authors.forename: Aaron R
authors.initials: AR
authors.lastname: Folsom
authors.forename: David R
authors.initials: DR
authors.lastname: Jacobs
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D000428:Alcohol Drinking; D002318:Cardiovascular Diseases / Q000209:etiology* / Q000401:mortality / Q000517:prevention & control; D004034:Diet Surveys; D002149:Energy Intake; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007484:Iowa; D019266:Iron, Dietary / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000009:adverse effects*; D008875:Middle Aged; D017698:Postmenopause; D012306:Risk; D016387:Women's Health; D015032:Zinc / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000627:therapeutic use*
chemical_list: D019266:Iron, Dietary; D015032:Zinc