title: The cost and yield of photoscreening: impact of photoscreening on overall pediatric ophthalmic costs.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Approximately 5% of preschool-age children suffer from amblyopia. Many of them have high or unequal hyperopia. Amblyogenic risk factors frequently can be detected by photoscreening.
  
  
  METHODS
  Free photoscreening was offered to Alaskan children ages 1 to 5 from urban and rural screening hubs. Screened images were mailed to the Alaska Blind Child Discovery coordinating center for physician photoscreen interpretation, specifically seeking latent or anisometropic hyperopia. Parents and screeners then were mailed results and information about amblyopia. Follow-up examination data were tallied, and a cost-consequence analysis was developed for various vision screening paradigms and eye care.
  
  
  RESULTS
  From 1996 through 2003, a total of 13,255 screenings were performed with a positive interpretation rate of 4.7%. Penetrance of screening was 22% in urban and 44% in rural communities. Positive predictive value was estimated to be more than 90%. Average cost to screen and inform an Alaskan preschooler was approximately 10.67 dollars, and cost to detect amblyogenic risk factors by photoscreening in an Alaskan was approximately 206 dollars. Compared to American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) 1995 guidelines, implementing photoscreening added 9%, while mandating complete prekindergarten examination added 49% to overall eye care.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  MTI photoscreening achieved high community penetrance and high positive predictive value for latent hyperopia and other amblyogenic factors. When follow-up costs are considered, adding photoscreening to current AAP guidelines may add 112 dollars per child over 10 years, but probably would assist in the reduction of amblyopia. Penetrance of urban photoscreening likely will remain low unless pediatric vision screening guidelines and reimbursement are revised.
authors.affiliation: Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus, Ophthalmic Associates, 542 West Second Avenue, Anchorage, AK 99501-2242 USA.
authors.forename: Robert W
authors.initials: RW
authors.lastname: Arnold
authors.forename: M Diane
authors.initials: MD
authors.lastname: Armitage
authors.forename: Elisha G
authors.initials: EG
authors.lastname: Gionet
authors.forename: Adam
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Balinger
authors.forename: Tatiana A
authors.initials: TA
authors.lastname: Kovtoun
authors.forename: Christy
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Machida
authors.forename: Lynn J
authors.initials: LJ
authors.lastname: Coon
mesh_terms: D000413:Alaska; D000550:Amblyopia / Q000175:diagnosis*; D002675:Child, Preschool; D017048:Health Care Costs; D006801:Humans; D006956:Hyperopia / Q000175:diagnosis*; D007223:Infant; D010781:Photography / Q000191:economics*; D011237:Predictive Value of Tests; D015351:Vision Screening / Q000191:economics* / Q000379:methods*