title: Associations between cigarette smoking, pipe/cigar smoking, and smoking cessation, and haemostatic and inflammatory markers for cardiovascular disease.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To examine the associations between cigarette smoking, pipe/cigar smoking, and years since quitting smoking, and inflammatory and haemostatic markers.
  
  
  RESULTS
  A study in 2920 men aged 60-79 with no history of myocardial infarction, angina, stroke, or diabetes, and who were not on warfarin, from general practices in 24 British towns. After adjustment for other major cardiovascular risk factors, compared with never smokers, current cigarette smokers showed significantly higher levels of C-reactive protein (2.53 vs. 1.35 mg/L), white cell count (7.92 vs. 6.42 x 10(9)/L), and fibrinogen (3.51 vs. 3.13 g/L). They also showed higher levels of haematocrit, blood and plasma viscosity, tissue plasminogen activator antigen, and fibrin D-dimer, and lower levels of albumin. Primary pipe/cigar smokers showed levels similar to never smokers. Ex-cigarette smokers and secondary pipe/cigar smokers showed intermediate levels although secondary pipe/cigar smokers showed higher odds of having elevated white cell count and fibrinogen than ex-cigarette smokers. Most inflammatory and haemostatic levels improved within 5 years of smoking cessation but took over 20 years to revert to levels of never smokers.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These findings suggest that activation of inflammation and haemostasis may be potential mechanisms by which cigarette and pipe/cigar smoking increase cardiovascular risk.
authors.affiliation: Department of Primary Care and Population Sciences, Royal Free and University College Medical School, Rowland Hill St, London NW3 2PF, UK. goya@pcps.ucl.ac.uk
authors.forename: S Goya
authors.initials: SG
authors.lastname: Wannamethee
authors.forename: Gordon D O
authors.initials: GD
authors.lastname: Lowe
authors.forename: A Gerald
authors.initials: AG
authors.lastname: Shaper
authors.forename: Ann
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Rumley
authors.forename: Lucy
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Lennon
authors.forename: Peter H
authors.initials: PH
authors.lastname: Whincup
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000097:blood; D002097:C-Reactive Protein / Q000032:analysis; D002318:Cardiovascular Diseases / Q000097:blood / Q000209:etiology*; D005340:Fibrinogen / Q000032:analysis; D006487:Hemostasis; D006801:Humans; D018836:Inflammation Mediators / Q000097:blood*; D007958:Leukocyte Count; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D011446:Prospective Studies; D012307:Risk Factors; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000097:blood*; D016540:Smoking Cessation
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D018836:Inflammation Mediators; D005340:Fibrinogen; D002097:C-Reactive Protein