title: Inhibition of HIV-1 replication by caffeine and caffeine-related methylxanthines.
abstract: Human immunodeficiency virus type I (HIV-1) DNA integration is an essential step of viral replication. We have suggested recently that this stage of HIV-1 life-cycle triggers a cellular DNA damage response and requires cellular DNA repair proteins for its completion. These include DNA-PK (DNA-dependent protein kinase), ATR (ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3-related), and, at least in some circumstances, ATM (ataxia telangiectasia mutated). Host cell proteins may constitute an attractive target for anti-HIV-1 therapeutics, since development of drug resistance against compounds targeting these cellular cofactor proteins is unlikely. In this study, we show that an inhibitor of ATR and ATM kinases, caffeine, can suppress replication of infectious HIV-1 strains, and provide evidence that caffeine exerts its inhibitory effect at the integration step of the HIV-1 life-cycle. We also demonstrate that caffeine-related methylxanthines including the clinically used compound, theophylline, act at the same step of the HIV-1 life-cycle as caffeine and efficiently inhibit HIV-1 replication in primary human cells. These data reveal the feasibility of therapeutic approaches targeting host cell proteins and further support the hypothesis that ATR and ATM proteins are involved in retroviral DNA integration.
authors.affiliation: The Dorrance H. Hamilton Laboratories, Center for Human Virology and Biodefense, Division of Infectious Diseases and Environmental Medicine, Jefferson Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA.
authors.forename: Giuseppe
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Nunnari
authors.forename: Elias
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Argyris
authors.forename: Jianhua
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Fang
authors.forename: Ketti E
authors.initials: KE
authors.lastname: Mehlman
authors.forename: Roger J
authors.initials: RJ
authors.lastname: Pomerantz
authors.forename: René
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Daniel
mesh_terms: D064007:Ataxia Telangiectasia Mutated Proteins; D002110:Caffeine / Q000494:pharmacology*; D018797:Cell Cycle Proteins / Q000378:metabolism; D002460:Cell Line; D002478:Cells, Cultured; D004268:DNA-Binding Proteins / Q000378:metabolism; D015497:HIV-1 / Q000145:classification / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000235:genetics / Q000502:physiology; D006801:Humans; D010766:Phosphorylation / Q000187:drug effects; D047428:Protein Kinase Inhibitors / Q000494:pharmacology*; D017346:Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases / Q000378:metabolism; D013806:Theophylline / Q000494:pharmacology; D013997:Time Factors; D025521:Tumor Suppressor Proteins / Q000378:metabolism; D014779:Virus Replication / Q000187:drug effects*; D014970:Xanthines / Q000494:pharmacology*
chemical_list: D018797:Cell Cycle Proteins; D004268:DNA-Binding Proteins; D047428:Protein Kinase Inhibitors; D025521:Tumor Suppressor Proteins; D014970:Xanthines; C008514:methylxanthine; D002110:Caffeine; D013806:Theophylline; C576324:ATM protein, human; C576597:ATR protein, human; D064007:Ataxia Telangiectasia Mutated Proteins; D017346:Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases