title: Adenosinergic mechanisms underlying recovery of diaphragm motor function following upper cervical spinal cord injury: potential therapeutic implications.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  In adult rats, a latent respiratory motor pathway can be pharmacologically activated with 1,3-dimethylxanthine (theophylline) to restore respiratory-related activity to a hemidiaphragm paralysed by an ipsilateral upper cervical (C2) spinal cord hemisection. The purpose of this review is to describe mechanisms that underlie theophylline-induced recovery of respiratory-related function following C2 hemisection and to underscore the therapeutic potential of theophylline therapy in spinal cord injured patients with respiratory deficits.
  
  
  METHODS
  Theophylline mediates recovery of respiratory-related activity via antagonism of central adenosine A(1) receptors. When administered chronically, the drug restores and maintains recovered function. Since theophylline is an adenosine receptor antagonist with affinity for both the adenosine A(1) and A(2) receptors, we assessed the relative contributions of each receptor to functional recovery. While A(1) receptor antagonism plays a predominant role, activation of the A(2) receptors by specific agonists subserves the A(1) receptor-mediated actions. That is, when an adenosine A(2) receptor agonist is administered first, it primes the system such that subsequent administration of the A(1) antagonist induces a greater degree of recovered respiratory activity than when the antagonist alone is administered.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Chronic oral administration of theophylline in C2 hemisected animals demonstrates that even when animals have been weaned from the drug, theophylline-induced recovered respiratory actions persist. This suggests that in clinical application, it may not be necessary to maintain patients on long-term theophylline. We have shown that recovery of respiratory-related activity in the ipsilateral phrenic nerve can occur spontaneously 3-4 months after C2 hemisection. Theophylline administration after this post-injury period obliterates/negates the recovery function. This indicates strongly that there is therapeutic window (more acutely after injury) for the initiation of theophylline therapy. We have also demonstrated that peripheral (carotid bodies) adenosine A(1) receptors can be selectively activated to modulate theophylline-induced CNS actions. Blocking central adenosine receptors while simultaneously activating peripheral adenosine receptors minimizes the potential of respiratory muscle fatigue with theophylline.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The significance of the current findings lies in the potential clinical application of theophylline therapy in spinal cord injured patients with respiratory deficits. The ultimate goal of theophylline therapy is to wean ventilator-dependent patients off ventilatory support. Thus far, our animal studies suggest that the onset of theophylline therapy must be soon after injury.
authors.affiliation: Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Wayne State University, School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA. knantwi@med.wayne.edu
authors.forename: Kwaku D
authors.initials: KD
authors.lastname: Nantwi
authors.forename: Harry G
authors.initials: HG
authors.lastname: Goshgarian
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D003964:Diaphragm / Q000187:drug effects / Q000503:physiopathology*; D004195:Disease Models, Animal; D004576:Electromyography / Q000379:methods; D007839:Functional Laterality; D016571:Neural Networks, Computer; D010726:Phosphodiesterase Inhibitors / Q000627:therapeutic use; D058906:Purinergic P1 Receptor Agonists; D058915:Purinergic P1 Receptor Antagonists; D051381:Rats; D018047:Receptors, Purinergic P1 / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology*; D020127:Recovery of Function / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology*; D012119:Respiration / Q000187:drug effects; D013119:Spinal Cord Injuries / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000503:physiopathology*; D013806:Theophylline / Q000627:therapeutic use
chemical_list: D010726:Phosphodiesterase Inhibitors; D058906:Purinergic P1 Receptor Agonists; D058915:Purinergic P1 Receptor Antagonists; D018047:Receptors, Purinergic P1; D013806:Theophylline