title: A cross-sectional analysis demonstrated the healthy volunteer effect in smokers.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  This cross-sectional descriptive analysis sought to determine if a healthy volunteer effect can be demonstrated among smokers selected to participate in a dietary intervention trial.
  
  
  METHODS
  Body mass index (BMI), body fat, physical activity, dietary intake, and plasma concentration of antioxidant nutrients and carotenoids were assessed cross-sectionally, at the time of enrollment into a dietary intervention trial, among 136 adult smokers.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Mean BMI was below national age- and gender-specific averages as was prevalence of overweight and obesity. Physical activity was reported to average 15.4 h/wk. Compared with other sample populations of smokers, our smokers reported lower total fat and cholesterol intakes, higher vitamin C and beta-carotene intakes, and generally equal vitamin E intakes. Plasma ascorbic acid, alpha-tocopherol, alpha- and beta-carotene, and beta-cryptoxanthin concentrations were higher than those of smokers surveyed by NHANES III.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These findings suggest that a "healthy volunteer effect" can be described among adult smokers. Future dietary intervention trials among smokers should cautiously estimate sample size because smokers electing to participate may report healthier dietary patterns than other smokers. Screening criteria regarding baseline micronutrient status of smokers should be evaluated given that intervention effects may be dependent on overall health status.
authors.affiliation: The University of Arizona, Arizona Cancer Center, PO Box 245024, Tucson, AZ 85724-5024, USA. cthomson@u.arizona.edu
authors.forename: Cynthia A
authors.initials: CA
authors.lastname: Thomson
authors.forename: Robin B
authors.initials: RB
authors.lastname: Harris
authors.forename: Neal E
authors.initials: NE
authors.lastname: Craft
authors.forename: Iman A
authors.initials: IA
authors.lastname: Hakim
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000975:Antioxidants / Q000032:analysis*; D001205:Ascorbic Acid / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000097:blood; D015982:Bias; D015992:Body Mass Index; D002338:Carotenoids / Q000097:blood; D004032:Diet; D004041:Dietary Fats / Q000008:administration & dosage; D005260:Female; D006304:Health Status; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D018977:Micronutrients / Q000097:blood; D008875:Middle Aged; D012907:Smoking / Q000097:blood* / Q000453:epidemiology; D014810:Vitamin E / Q000008:administration & dosage; D019207:beta Carotene / Q000008:administration & dosage
chemical_list: D000975:Antioxidants; D004041:Dietary Fats; D018977:Micronutrients; D019207:beta Carotene; D014810:Vitamin E; D002338:Carotenoids; D001205:Ascorbic Acid