title: Freeze-drying process design by manometric temperature measurement: design of a smart freeze-dryer.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To develop a procedure based on manometric temperature measurement (MTM) and an expert system for good practices in freeze drying that will allow development of an optimized freeze-drying process during a single laboratory freeze-drying experiment.
  
  
  METHODS
  Freeze drying was performed with a FTS Dura-Stop/Dura-Top freeze dryer with the manometric temperature measurement software installed. Five percent solutions of glycine, sucrose, or mannitol with 2 ml to 4 ml fill in 5 ml vials were used, with all vials loaded on one shelf. Details of freezing, optimization of chamber pressure, target product temperature, and some aspects of secondary drying are determined by the expert system algorithms. MTM measurements were used to select the optimum shelf temperature, to determine drying end points, and to evaluate residual moisture content in real-time. MTM measurements were made at 1 hour or half-hour intervals during primary drying and secondary drying, with a data collection frequency of 4 points per second. The improved MTM equations were fit to pressure-time data generated by the MTM procedure using Microcal Origin software to obtain product temperature and dry layer resistance. Using heat and mass transfer theory, the MTM results were used to evaluate mass and heat transfer rates and to estimate the shelf temperature required to maintain the target product temperature.
  
  
  RESULTS
  MTM product dry layer resistance is accurate until about two-thirds of total primary drying time is over, and the MTM product temperature is normally accurate almost to the end of primary drying provided that effective thermal shielding is used in the freeze-drying process. The primary drying times can be accurately estimated from mass transfer rates calculated very early in the run, and we find the target product temperature can be achieved and maintained with only a few adjustments of shelf temperature. The freeze-dryer overload conditions can be estimated by calculation of heat/mass flow at the target product temperature. It was found that the MTM results serve as an excellent indicator of the end point of primary drying. Further, we find that the rate of water desorption during secondary drying may be accurately measured by a variation of the basic MTM procedure. Thus, both the end point of secondary drying and real-time residual moisture may be obtained during secondary drying.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Manometric temperature measurement and the expert system for good practices in freeze drying does allow development of an optimized freeze-drying process during a single laboratory freeze-drying experiment.
authors.affiliation: School of Pharmacy, University of Connecticut, Storrs 06269, USA.
authors.forename: Xiaolin Charlie
authors.initials: XC
authors.lastname: Tang
authors.forename: Steven L
authors.initials: SL
authors.lastname: Nail
authors.forename: Michael J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Pikal
mesh_terms: D005612:Freeze Drying / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods*; D005615:Freezing; D005998:Glycine / Q000737:chemistry; D008353:Mannitol / Q000737:chemistry; D008365:Manometry; D013395:Sucrose / Q000737:chemistry; D013678:Technology, Pharmaceutical; D014867:Water / Q000032:analysis
chemical_list: D014867:Water; D008353:Mannitol; D013395:Sucrose; D005998:Glycine