title: The London Underground: dust and hazards to health.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To assess hazards associated with exposure to dust in the London Underground railway and to provide an informed opinion on the risks to workers and the travelling public of exposure to tunnel dust.
  
  
  METHODS
  Concentrations of dust, as mass (PM2.5) and particle number, were measured at different underground stations and in train cabs; its size and composition were analysed; likely maximal exposures of staff and passengers were estimated; and in vitro toxicological testing of sample dusts in comparison with other dusts was performed.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Concentrations on station platforms were 270-480 microg/m3 PM2.5 and 14,000-29,000 particles/cm3. Cab concentrations over a shift averaged 130-200 microg/m3 and 17,000-23,000 particles/cm3. The dust comprised by mass approximately 67% iron oxide, 1-2% quartz, and traces of other metals, the residue being volatile matter. The finest particles are drawn underground from the surface while the coarser dust is generated by interaction of brakes, wheels, and rails. Taking account of durations of exposure, drivers and station staff would have maximum exposures of about 200 microg/m3 over eight hours; the occupational exposure standard for welding fume, as iron oxide, is 5 mg/m3 over an eight hour shift. Toxicology showed the dust to have cytotoxic and inflammatory potential at high doses, consistent with its composition largely of iron oxide.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  It is unjustifiable to compare PM2.5 exposure underground with that on the surface, since the adverse effects of iron oxide and combustion generated particles differ. Concentrations of ultrafine particles are lower and of coarser (PM2.5) particles higher underground than on the surface. The concentrations underground are well below allowable workplace concentrations for iron oxide and unlikely to represent a significant cumulative risk to the health of workers or commuters.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Occupational Medicine, Edinburgh, UK. a.seaton@abdn.ac.uk
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Seaton
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Cherrie
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Dennekamp
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Donaldson
authors.forename: J F
authors.initials: JF
authors.lastname: Hurley
authors.forename: C L
authors.initials: CL
authors.lastname: Tran
mesh_terms: D000393:Air Pollutants / Q000032:analysis* / Q000633:toxicity; D004249:DNA Damage; D004391:Dust / Q000032:analysis*; D004781:Environmental Exposure / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000032:analysis*; D004784:Environmental Monitoring / Q000379:methods; D005290:Ferric Compounds / Q000032:analysis; D006801:Humans; D016209:Interleukin-8 / Q000378:metabolism; D008131:London; D016273:Occupational Exposure / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000032:analysis; D010316:Particle Size; D010957:Plasmids; D011890:Railroads / Q000592:standards*; D018570:Risk Assessment / Q000379:methods; D012995:Solubility; D023382:Toxicity Tests, Acute / Q000379:methods; D028561:Transition Elements / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity; D014407:Tumor Cells, Cultured
chemical_list: D000393:Air Pollutants; D004391:Dust; D005290:Ferric Compounds; D016209:Interleukin-8; D028561:Transition Elements; C000499:ferric oxide