title: Control of the reinforcing effects of nicotine by associated environmental stimuli in animals and humans.
abstract: Tobacco dependence through cigarette smoking is the leading preventable cause of death in the world and kills nearly 4 million people annually. Nicotine, a psychoactive component of tobacco, is thought to have a major role in tobacco dependence by acting directly as a reinforcer of drug-seeking and drug-taking behavior. However, recent findings obtained with two procedures that are used widely to assess reinforcing effects of drugs in experimental animals, intravenous drug self-administration and conditioned place-preference procedures, demonstrate that environmental factors have a major influence on the reinforcing effects of nicotine. Under some experimental conditions, nicotine is also self-administered reliably by humans. Environmental stimuli that have been associated previously with the self-administration of nicotine can reinstate extinguished drug-seeking behavior in animals and precipitate relapse to smoking behavior in ex-smokers. Innovative medications that target cannabinoid CB(1) and dopamine D(3) receptors and might block specifically the influence of such conditioned environmental stimuli in smokers are in development.
authors.affiliation: Preclinical Pharmacology Section, Behavioral Neuroscience Research Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH/DHHS, 5500 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA. blefoll@intra.nida.nih.gov
authors.forename: Bernard
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Le Foll
authors.forename: Steven R
authors.initials: SR
authors.lastname: Goldberg
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D003213:Conditioning, Psychological; D006801:Humans; D009538:Nicotine / Q000494:pharmacology*; D043884:Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1 / Q000187:drug effects; D017448:Receptors, Dopamine D2 / Q000187:drug effects; D050637:Receptors, Dopamine D3; D012054:Reinforcement, Psychology; D012646:Self Administration
chemical_list: C493593:DRD3 protein, human; D043884:Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1; D017448:Receptors, Dopamine D2; D050637:Receptors, Dopamine D3; D009538:Nicotine