title: Chronic coffee consumption has a detrimental effect on aortic stiffness and wave reflections.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The effect of coffee consumption on the cardiovascular system is still an unresolved issue. Aortic stiffness and wave reflections are important prognosticators of cardiovascular disease risk. We have shown that caffeine acutely increases aortic stiffness and wave reflections.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  The objective was to investigate the effect of chronic coffee consumption on aortic stiffness and wave reflections.
  
  
  METHODS
  This was a cross-sectional study of 228 healthy subjects: 141 men (x +/- SD: 41 +/- 8 y old) and 87 women (41 +/- 9 y old). Aortic stiffness was evaluated with carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (PWV). Wave reflections were evaluated with augmentation index (AIx) and augmented pressure (AP) of the aortic pressure waveform with the use of high-fidelity pulse wave analysis. Coffee consumption was ascertained over 1 y with a food-frequency questionnaire.
  
  
  RESULTS
  A linear relation between coffee consumption and PWV, AIx, and AP was observed (P for trend < 0.05). Compared with the nonconsumption group, PWV was on average 13% higher, AIx was 2-fold higher, and AP was 2.4-fold higher (P < 0.01 for all) in the high-consumption group (>450 mL/d). The findings remained significant after control for confounders such as age, sex, smoking habits, body mass index, total and LDL cholesterol, triacylglycerols, blood glucose, mean blood pressure, and heart rate. The linear relation (P for trend < 0.05) observed between coffee consumption and arterial pressures was largely explained when the covariates were entered in the model.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Chronic coffee consumption exerts a detrimental effect on aortic stiffness and wave reflections, which may increase the risk of cardiovascular disease.
authors.affiliation: 1st Department of Cardiology, Hippokration Hospital, School of Medicine, University of Athens, Athens, Greece. cvlachop@otenet.gr
authors.forename: Charalambos
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Vlachopoulos
authors.forename: Demosthenes
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Panagiotakos
authors.forename: Nikolaos
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Ioakeimidis
authors.forename: Ioanna
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Dima
authors.forename: Christodoulos
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Stefanadis
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001011:Aorta / Q000187:drug effects / Q000473:pathology / Q000502:physiology; D001018:Aortic Diseases / Q000209:etiology* / Q000503:physiopathology*; D001783:Blood Flow Velocity / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology; D001794:Blood Pressure / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology; D002110:Caffeine / Q000009:adverse effects; D002318:Cardiovascular Diseases / Q000209:etiology*; D000697:Central Nervous System Stimulants / Q000009:adverse effects; D003069:Coffee / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000737:chemistry; D015986:Confounding Factors, Epidemiologic; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D004548:Elasticity / Q000187:drug effects; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D011673:Pulsatile Flow / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000502:physiology; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D013997:Time Factors
chemical_list: D000697:Central Nervous System Stimulants; D003069:Coffee; D002110:Caffeine