title: Emperor penguins adjust swim speed according to the above-water height of ice holes through which they exit.
abstract: Emperor penguins leap from the water onto the sea ice. Their ability to reach above-water height depends critically on initial vertical speed of their leaping, assuming that the kinetic energy is converted to gravitational potential energy. We deliberately changed the above-water heights of ice hole exits, in order to examine whether penguins adjusted swim speed in accordance with the above-water height of the ice. Penguins were maintained in a corral on the fast ice in Antarctica, and voluntarily dived through two artificial ice holes. Data loggers were deployed on the penguins to monitor under water behavior. Nine instrumented penguins performed 386 leaps from the holes during experiments. The maximum swim speeds within 1 s before the exits through the holes correlated significantly with the above-water height of the holes. Penguins adopted higher speed to exit through the higher holes than through the lower holes. Speeds of some failed exits were lower than the theoretical minimum values to reach a given height. Penguins failed to exit onto the sea ice in a total of 37 of the trials. There was no preference to use lower holes after they failed to exit through the higher holes. Rather, swim speed was increased for subsequent attempts after failed leaps. These data demonstrated that penguins apparently recognized the above-water height of holes and adopted speeds greater than the minimal vertical speeds to reach the exit height. It is likely, especially in the case of higher holes (>40 cm), that they chose minimum speeds to exit through the holes to avoid excess energy for swimming before leaping. However, some exceptionally high speeds were recorded when they directly exited onto the ice from lower depths. In those cases, birds could increase swim speed without strokes for the final seconds before exit and they only increased the steepness of their body angles as they surfaced, which indicates that the speed required for leaps by emperor penguins were aided by buoyancy, and that penguins can sometimes exit through the ice holes without any stroking effort before leaping.
authors.affiliation: International Coastal Research Center, Ocean Research Institute, University of Tokyo, 2-106-1 Akahama, Otsuchi, Iwate 028-1102, Japan. katsu@wakame.ori.u-tokyo.ac.jp
authors.forename: Katsufumi
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Sato
authors.forename: Paul J
authors.initials: PJ
authors.lastname: Ponganis
authors.forename: Yoshiaki
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Habara
authors.forename: Yasuhiko
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Naito
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000864:Antarctic Regions; D001696:Biomechanical Phenomena; D007053:Ice; D008962:Models, Theoretical; D046429:Spheniscidae / Q000502:physiology*; D013550:Swimming / Q000502:physiology*
chemical_list: D007053:Ice