Anandamide transport: a critical review.
Anandamide (AEA) uptake has been described over the last decade to occur by facilitated diffusion, but a protein has yet to be isolated. In some cell types, it has recently been suggested that AEA, an uncharged hydrophobic molecule, passively diffuses through the plasma membrane in a process that is not protein-mediated. Since that observation, recent kinetics studies (using varying assay conditions) have both supported and denied the presence of an AEA transporter. In this review, we analyze the current literature exploring the mechanism of AEA uptake and endeavor to explain the reasons for the divergent views. One of the main variables among laboratories is the incubation time of the cells with AEA. Initial kinetics (at time points <1 min depending upon the cell type) isolate events that occur at the plasma membrane and are most useful to study saturability of uptake and effects of purported transport inhibitors upon uptake. Results with longer incubation times reflect events not only at the plasma membrane but also interactions at intracellular sites that may include enzyme(s), other proteins, or specialized lipid-binding domains. Furthermore, at long incubation times, antagonists to AEA receptors reduce AEA uptake. Another complicating factor in AEA transport studies is the nonspecific binding to plastic culture dishes. The magnitude of this effect may exceed AEA uptake into cells. Likewise, AEA may be released from plastic culture dishes (without cells) in such a manner as to mimic efflux from cells. AEA transport protocols using BSA, similar to the method used for fatty acid uptake studies, are gaining acceptance. This may improve AEA solution stability and minimize binding to plastic, although some groups report that BSA interferes with uptake. In response to criticisms that many transport inhibitors also inhibit the fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), new compounds have recently been synthesized. Following their characterization in FAAH+/+ and FAAH-/- cells and transgenic mice, several inhibitors have been shown to have physiological activity in FAAH-/- mice. Their targets are now being characterized with the possibility that a protein transporter for AEA may be characterized.
Glaser
Sherrye T
ST
Medical Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, United States.
Kaczocha
Martin
M
Deutsch
Dale G
DG
D000581:Amidohydrolases / Q000378:metabolism; D001095:Arachidonic Acids / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000494:pharmacology / Q000502:physiology; D001549:Benzamides / Q000494:pharmacology; D001593:Benzyl Compounds / Q000494:pharmacology; D001681:Biological Assay / Q000379:methods*; D001692:Biological Transport / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology; D018929:Cell Culture Techniques / Q000379:methods; D002462:Cell Membrane / Q000378:metabolism*; D063388:Endocannabinoids; D050612:Fatty Acid Transport Proteins / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors*; D005663:Furans / Q000494:pharmacology; D007700:Kinetics; D053284:Polyunsaturated Alkamides; D043882:Receptors, Cannabinoid / Q000378:metabolism; D012710:Serum Albumin, Bovine; D000099252:Fatty Acid Amide Hydrolases
D000581:Amidohydrolases; D001095:Arachidonic Acids; D001549:Benzamides; D001593:Benzyl Compounds; D063388:Endocannabinoids; D050612:Fatty Acid Transport Proteins; D005663:Furans; D053284:Polyunsaturated Alkamides; D043882:Receptors, Cannabinoid; D012710:Serum Albumin, Bovine; D000099252:Fatty Acid Amide Hydrolases; C488550:AM1172; C443680:N-(3-furylmethyl)eicosa-5,8,11,14-tetraenamide; C474344:OMDM-1 cpd; C474343:OMDM-2 cpd; C078814:anandamide