title: Prevalence, quantification and typing of adenoviruses detected in river and treated drinking water in South Africa.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Human adenoviruses (HAds), of which there are 51 serotypes, are associated with gastrointestinal, respiratory, urinary tract and eye infections. The importance of water in the transmission of HAds and the potential health risks constituted by HAds in these environments are widely recognized. Adenoviruses have not previously been quantified in river and treated drinking water samples. In this study, HAds in river water and treated drinking water sources in South Africa were detected, quantified and typed.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Adenoviruses were recovered from the water samples using a glass wool adsorption-elution method followed by polyethylene glycol/NaCl precipitation for secondary concentration. The sensitivity and specificity of two nested PCR methods were compared for detection of HAds in the water samples. Over a 1-year period (June 2002 to July 2003), HAds were detected in 5.32% (10/188) of the treated drinking water and 22.22% (10/45) of river water samples using the conventional nested PCR method. The HAds detected in the water samples were quantified using a real-time PCR method. The original treated drinking water and river water samples had an estimate of less than one copy per litre of HAd DNA present. The hexon-PCR products used for typing HAds were directly sequenced or cloned into plasmids before sequencing. In treated drinking water samples, species D HAds predominated. In addition, adenovirus serotypes 2, 40 and 41 were each detected in three different treated drinking water samples. Most (70%) of the HAds detected in river water samples analysed were enteric HAds (serotypes 40 and 41). One HAd serotype 2 and two species D HAds were detected in the river water.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Adenoviruses detected in river and treated drinking water samples were successfully quantified and typed. The detection of HAds in drinking water supplies treated and disinfected by internationally recommended methods, and which conform to quality limits for indicator bacteria, warrants an investigation of the risk of infection constituted by these viruses. The risk of infection may have implications for the management of drinking water quality.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This study is unique as it is the first report on the quantification and typing of HAds in treated drinking water and river water. This baseline data is necessary for the meaningful assessment of the potential risk of infection constituted by these viruses.
authors: Department of Medical Virology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa. vanheerdenj@arc.agric.za
authors: J
authors: J
authors: van Heerden
authors: M M
authors: MM
authors: Ehlers
authors: A
authors: A
authors: Heim
authors: W O K
authors: WO
authors: Grabow
mesh_terms: D000258:Adenovirus Infections, Human / Q000635:transmission; D000260:Adenoviruses, Human / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D001483:Base Sequence; D015169:Colony Count, Microbial; D004279:DNA, Viral / Q000032:analysis; D004326:Drinking; D004784:Environmental Monitoring / Q000379:methods; D006801:Humans; D010802:Phylogeny; D016133:Polymerase Chain Reaction / Q000379:methods; D012367:RNA, Viral / Q000032:analysis; D045483:Rivers / Q000382:microbiology; D012703:Serotyping / Q000379:methods; D013019:South Africa; D014871:Water Microbiology
chemical_list: D004279:DNA, Viral; D012367:RNA, Viral