title: Multimodal management of urolithiasis in renal transplantation.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To report the largest single series of renal transplant patients (adults and children) with urolithiasis, assess the risk factors associated with urolithiasis in renal transplant recipients, and report the outcome of the multimodal management by endourological and open procedures.
  
  
  METHODS
  The records of all patients undergoing renal transplantation between 1977 and 2003 were reviewed. In all, 2085 patients had a renal transplant at our centre and 21 (17 adults and four children) developed urinary tract calculi. Their mode of presentation, investigations, treatments, complications and outcomes were recorded. Investigations included one or more of the following; ultrasonography (US), plain abdominal X-ray, intravenous urography, nephrostogram and computed tomography. Management of these calculi involved extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL), flexible ureteroscopy and in situ lithotripsy, percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL), open pyelolithotomy and open cystolitholapaxy.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Thirteen patients had renal calculi, seven had ureteric calculi and one had bladder calculi. The incidence of urolithiasis was 21/2085 (1.01%) in the series. Urolithiasis was incidentally discovered on routine US in six patients, six presented with oliguria or anuria, including one with acute renal failure, four with a painful graft, three with haematuria, one with sepsis secondary to obstruction and infection and in one, urolithiasis was found after failure to remove a stent. Ten patients (63%) had an identifiable metabolic cause for urolithiasis, two by obstruction, two stent-related, one secondary to infection and in six no cause was identifiable. Thirteen required more than one treatment method; 13 (69%) were treated by ESWL, eight of whom required multiple sessions; eight required ureteric stent insertion before a second procedure and four required a nephrostomy tube to relieve obstruction. Two patients had flexible ureteroscopy and stone extraction, three had a PCNL and one had open cystolithotomy. PCNL failed in one patient who subsequently had successful open pyelolithotomy. All patients were rendered stone-free when different treatments were combined.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The incidence of urolithiasis in renal transplant patients is low. There is a high incidence of metabolic causes and therefore renal transplant patients with urolithiasis should undergo comprehensive metabolic screening. Management of these patients requires a multidisciplinary approach by renal physicians, transplant surgeons and urologists.
authors.affiliation: Department of Urology, Guy's and St Thomas' Hospitals, London, UK. benchallacombe@hotmail.com
authors.forename: Ben
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Challacombe
authors.forename: Prokar
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Dasgupta
authors.forename: Richard
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Tiptaft
authors.forename: Jonathan
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Glass
authors.forename: Geoff
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Koffman
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Goldsmith
authors.forename: Mohammed S
authors.initials: MS
authors.lastname: Khan
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D003131:Combined Modality Therapy; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007669:Kidney Calculi / Q000209:etiology / Q000628:therapy*; D016030:Kidney Transplantation / Q000009:adverse effects*; D008096:Lithotripsy / Q000379:methods; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009403:Nephrostomy, Percutaneous / Q000379:methods; D012008:Recurrence; D012086:Reoperation; D012307:Risk Factors; D014184:Transplantation, Homologous; D016896:Treatment Outcome; D018666:Ureteroscopy / Q000379:methods