title: Gender identity and sex-of-rearing in children with disorders of sexual differentiation.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To compare declared sexual identity to sex-of-rearing in individuals with disorders of sexual differentiation.
  
  
  METHODS
  All 84 patients > or =5 years old in a pediatric psychosexual development clinic were assessed for sex-of-rearing and sexual identity. Diagnoses included 1) male-typical prenatal androgen effects but an absent or severely inadequate penis - 45 patients with cloacal exstrophy or aphallia; 2) inadequate prenatal androgens and a Y-chromosome - 28 patients with partial androgen insensitivity (pAIS), mixed gonadal dysgenesis (MGD), hermaphroditism, or craniofacial anomalies with genital ambiguity; 3) inappropriate prenatal androgen effects and a 46,XX karyotype - 11 patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH).
  
  
  RESULTS
  Of 73 patients with disordered sexual differentiation and a Y-chromosome, 60 were reared female; 26 of the 60 (43%) declared female identity while 32 (53%) declared male identity including 18 (55%) with cloacal exstrophy, six (55%) with MGD, four (40%) with pAIS, one (50%) with aphallia, one (100%) with hermaphroditism, and two (67%) with craniofacial anomalies; two (3%) declined to discuss identity. Nine of 11 patients with CAH and a 46,XX karyotype were reared female and two reared male; six (55%) declared female identity and five (45%) declared male identity. Of 84 total patients, 69 were reared female, but only 32 lived as female, while 29 lived as male; four patients refused to discuss sex-of-living; parents of four patients rejected their declarations of male identity. All 15 patients reared male lived as male including two genetic females.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Active prenatal androgen effects appeared to dramatically increase the likelihood of recognition of male sexual identity independent of sex-of-rearing. Genetic males with male-typical prenatal androgen effects should be reared male.
authors.affiliation: Department of Urology-Pediatric Urology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA. william-reiner@ouhsc.edu
authors.forename: William G
authors.initials: WG
authors.lastname: Reiner
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000312:Adrenal Hyperplasia, Congenital / Q000523:psychology; D000328:Adult; D002648:Child; D002668:Child Rearing; D002675:Child, Preschool; D012734:Disorders of Sex Development / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000235:genetics / Q000523:psychology*; D005260:Female; D005298:Fertility / Q000502:physiology; D005783:Gender Identity; D005835:Genitalia / Q000002:abnormalities; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D025064:Sex Chromosome Disorders / Q000235:genetics